Textile industry in ancient and medieval India

Textile industry and tools for it in Ajantha and Mughal paintings:-
Cotton fibres need cleaning before spun into yarn.The harvested cotton is left for a few days in sun to weaken adherence of seeds to floss in order to facilitate the former’s separation from floss.This is done by two traditional methods;
1.Roller and Board:-The roller is Cylindrical in shape.(See this important geometrical feature for understanding the mathematical proportions and knowledge which we will be discussing on another aspect of Indology,Mathematics and geometrical calculation and technological improvements.)This is worked with both hands and feet.It is kept on a flat board and worked with hands.(seen in Ajanta frescoes) and decribed in Miftah –ul-Fuzula a 15th century Illustrated Persian dictionary as a wooden instrument called Chubakin or chublin.This separates cotton from seeds.The method was also practiced in medieval China.The foot manipulated roller was used in South India until 19th century.Both hand and foot practices were known in India in different regions.
2.Cotton-gin.Depicted in Ajanta fresco.Schlingloff recognized it as bow-string device to separate cotton fibres.This was called a Charkhi(a wheel) but with a rectangular frame .The upper rollers are visible though slender.The cotton is fed between two rollers and the rollers are moved by hands in a wheellike fashion.This was used till mid-6th century AD in India.The same principle is used in Indian sugarcane rollers .There is no evidence of worm rollers in any other civilizations and both cotton and sugarcane being indigenous to India the methods are devised by Indians and in India is accepted.The difference from the sugarcane roller is that the cotton-ginning rollers are mounted so as to rotate vertically ,whereas sugarcane rollers move horizontally.In cotton-ginning the two oppositely rotating rollers were made to engage by placing the elongated worms side by side.The charkha had a crank handle but when this improvisation was made is not certain .It occurs in Bahar-i-Ajam(1740)and in miniature Kangra paintings(mid18th century)so that a date prior to this must be its origin.Islamic world received the technology from India before Chinese.China got it in 14th century .AD.

3.After ginning,cotton fibres are separated.Scutching loosens texture of cotton,removes dirt and dust.For this the most primitive method was to beat with stick.Till 17th century this was done along with the improvised bow and string method in India.While beating ,the fibres may be broken.That is why the Indians started to use bow and string devise.The vibrations of the string open up knots of cotton ,loosen and separate fibres of plant material instead of scutching where the fibres are broken.
Origin of bowstring device is seen in Jathaka tales (Ithinam Kappasapothanadhanukam or a woman’s bow for raising cotton).Therefore it was used in Pre-Christian Budhist and Sangham era.Its resemblance to the Yazh and its vibratory nature and relation to musical instruments of India is very interesting.It had a rectangular frame in Ajantha fresco of mid 6th century.But ,the rectangular frame cannot produce the necessary vibration.Only if it is bowshaped it is possible .Therefore the word Dhanus or dhanukam in pre-Christian Budhist texts is important.A bow with a string has elementary aspect of a spring in a vibrating wire,for loosening and separating fibres instead of scotching.The instrument in Ajanta fresco is therefore a Charki(which can have a rectangular frame ) and not a bowstring.
11th and 12th century texts of Sanskrit gives some information.(Vaijayanti of 11th and Abhidhaanachintamani of 12th century give pinjana as cotton carder’s bow).Pictures are given in Miftah-ul Fazla .There are two pictures in it.Shape is identical.Each has a round wooden bow shaft.The shape of top of bow is like a sickle.Bottom made by a board probably inserted into slot of a round board carrier and the whole attached to a shaft.A strong bowstring runs from top to bottom of footboard of bow.Both do not show a toggle-peg which is placed between the strings to achieve rough tightening by twisting it.The leathern block between string and foot-board for final adjustment is absent.A sling of some material (perhaps cotton yarn)is fastened to bowshaft near its center of gravity.The bower passes one hand through sling while working ,it also protects his hand.The Miftah-ul-Fuzala gives synonyms Duruna,Shafshahang,Lorak,Kaman-naddaf to the bow-string.
An important part of the devise is its mallet.This is called Mushta and Miftah-ul Fuzala calls it shafshahang.This is shown in both pictures.It had double tapering ends.It is held in its middle by right hand.The ridge of the upper head grips bowstring when bower strikes string with a mallet.When struck,the string becomes very tense and slips off the ridge.This results in strong vibrations ,which help loosen the cotton fibres.This device still survives in India and the cotton carder is called Dhuniya and the process is called Dhunna ,both names denoting Dwani or sound waves.
4.Spinning is the next preliminary process prior to weaving.Spindle is used to spin yarn.This came before the spinning wheel.In Ajanta fresco a lady is depicted as spinning yarn.Archeologists have found whorls,a supplementary part of spindle inIndus valley(E.Mackay.Early Indus civilization.New Delhi 1976.pp 82).
Miftah-ul Fuzala describes shokak and sangok as whorlholder in which spindle (duk)is rotated.The whorlholder is called Phirki in Hindi.Duk is a long spindle made of wood under which another wood is and that iron or wood is rotated by both hands so that short silk or wool is twisted.The 2 bits of wood or one bit of wood and another bit of iron ,in this definition refers to whorl of spindle containing the spindle ,the phirki .The whorl increase the speed of the spindle ,leading to more rapid spinning of yarn and this was known to Indus valley people shows how much they had known the physical laws like spinning ,acceleration ,momentum,etc nothing to speak of vibratory mechanics .
The single-spindle handspinning wheel was a major tool of spinning technology .Lynn White says spinning wheel was absent in ancient India and it came only with Ghorian conquerors to India.(13th to 14th century).In a copy of Harivansa printed in 15590-95)this is shown but with no crankhandle.In jehangir period miniatures the crank handle is not there.In Bichitr picture of Jahangir times a spinning wheel with a half-handle and a hole for small peg-handle is seen.In Aurangazeb time miniature a piece of wood mounted on axle at an angle is seen.The possibility is that the crankhandle came with Mughals (as an improvement)but the spinning wheel existed several centuries before the Persian and Ghorian conquerors in India.By 18th century the crankhandle was popular and further improvements did not happen.
5.Power transmission was incorporated in spinning wheel by wrapping connections .It embodies one of the earliest use of Flywheel principle and differential speed of rotation.The belt-drive was essential for main movement of the tool.The beltdrive confirms employment of this power transmission method in production technology .The spinning wheel increased productivity by this technology .
6.The spun yarn is transferred to spool.This tool is illustrated in the Miftah.The glossary explains it as wooden instrument on which cotton yarn and silk is wound ,and it is called Paretti in Hindi.
From cagespool or winding stick ,yarn was taken off the skein .Miftah describes the Kalawa(skein)thus:A yarn is put on yarn,that is coiled(pechand)and that is called ate in Hindi.This is the written earliest description of skeining.
Yarn was collected as coils from cage-spool for dyeing prior to weaving.This also is depicted in Mughal miniatures.The collected yarn is transferred from cagespool on to the wooden pegs driven into the ground in a circular manner.The coiled yarn is then collected and dyed.
7.Collection of yarn on weft-spool to be used in shuttle is a very important process.The yarn is wound on a reed from the skein.The reed was pushed over the spindle head and yarn was wound from skein on to reed which served as weft-spool.Miftah has an illustration of this.The ancillary use of spinning wheel is here.Spinning wheel is used for preparing weft-spool in a shuttle ,and raises the productivity .It was called Zaghuna in ancient times and during the time of Miftah it was popularly called a Mashora,it records.Weftspool or mashora is yarn (risman)which women arrange(sazand)in the shape of an egg or spindle.He also says that yarn is staraightened (rast kunand)and put together(baham karda).Bahar-i-Ajam gives a detailed accurate definition and says Mashora is that on which weavers would yarn,pass(guzarand)it into the shuttle(maku).
8.Warp-winding is the next important step.In its simplest form it is shown in Mughal miniatures and in Ziaudin Nakshabi’s Tuti Naama(1580-85)The weaver of silk garments is shown at a loom.The man transfers collected yarn from warp winding stock on to a number of warp pegs driven into ground in circular manner.Two pegs are seen placed near each other to achieve a warp-cros.The warp winder first attach the end of thread to right and left of the cross pegs alternately ,until warp has the requisite number of threads.Warps were sized to reduce friction and avoid damage to threads during weaving.Miftah describes size(ahar)thus:It was bat or pat (size)that was put on the cobweb(tansta)of yarn.The yarning and stretching is illustrated by him.Yarn put horizontally and supported at both ends by stout sticks driven to ground.A man depicted applying size on yarn with a brush (mala).The brush(mala)is a weavers brush or sima ,by which he puts size upon yarn of the cloth.This is called Kunchi in Hindi.(shown in Mughal miniatures)
9.Process of weaving consists of interlacing at right angles the two series of threads ,the warp and the weft.The instrument is the Loom.
Horizontal throwshuttles type loom for simple or tabby weave is very ancient ,the pai of treadles wherewith the sets of warp threads are lifted or depressed to allow for shuttle to pass through was added by an indigenous unknown weaver later.
Lauh-pay(footboard )a wooden strip which weaver keeps under his feet while weaving a cloth is used all over India.The pitloom(kuzhithari)is depicted in Mughal miniatures of 1580-85(Tutinama).The pair of treadles are placed in a pit in ground.The weaver operates sitting on edge of pit.Kabir is depicted with such a loom.In our primary school ,we were taught to weave a small piece of cloth with such a Kuzhithari or pitloom (that was in 1953-54 and such devises have disappeared from schools now.The best way to teach students Indian history is to have such ancient methods and explain the physics,chemistry,mathematics and brain work behind each of these.But unfortunately school curriculums are negligent of such things )The hands are freed to manipulate the shuttle and beater-comb ,while the feet can work the opening and closing of the shed which radically increase the speed and efficiency of operations and the speed and quality of production.
In miniatures the warp is horizontal .In Tutinama the warp is missing.Instead a continuous flow of cross warps which a man is busy arranging is shown.
Warp beam is tightened by tying it to a thick wooden peg.Warp tying string is shown near the breast beam.The weaver loosenes it to bring unfinished warp threads near him.Rod heddle(to which odd threads were lashed to lift half the threads to create the shed)shed rod(drawn close to weaver when heddle rod was let down from suspension to form counter shed for passage of next weft)are shown in miniatures.
10.Fancy or complex weaves.More manipulation since various colours are inserted in weft.From the first century at least Indian weavers have developed the Patola fabric.Motichandra speaks of Vichitrapatolaka(variegated coloured patola)in lalithavisthara of AD 1st century.It had been a rare gift item for Deogir to Aludin Khilji showing that it had been an indigenous technology and not from Persia.It is a special fabric from Patan of Gujrat and is a simple weave.(ref no 70 of ch 9 textile tools in Ajanta and Mughal paintings by Ishrat Alam notes that the pronounciation is Pattinee and not Patan.Thisis interesting since the Patinam or Taapatan of Arikkamedu in south India is a known trade center in prechristain and sangham period known to west and the Chinese for its export and economical prosperity).The warp and weft are pre-dyed in sections to proceed designs .Both sides have same pattern as against complex weaves with threads each entirely of one colour where two sides differ from the other.
For complex weave the technique of tabby weave and its variation patola weave was not sufficient.Thsi was achieved with a draw-loom.This multiply number of sheds controlled by cords pulled by a person assisting the weaver.Figured silks,cotton and fabrics were woven in India .From 11th century onwards South Indian weavers had been using this type of loom.Achuthari was the term for this.Achu means a design-print and thari is a loom.In Iran it was known from 14th century (Isami 1350)speaks of Chinese naqshbands(drawlooms)came to Iltumish’ Delhi .Tughlaq employed 500 manufacturers of golden tissues who could weave golden brocade for him.Ain-i-Akbari says Ghias –Naqshband was an excellent weaver.Till 19th century the ancient drawloom survived in India as evidenced from the Murshidabad (Bengal)loom.This had a draw harness which operated on figure warp only.It consisted of a large number of vertical draw-strings .Each string connected to a horizontal gut string in cross harness.With lifting of one drawstring ,cross harness gut string is lifted with its mails attached to warp threads were raised ,the resulting pattern could be repeated.(This was the same pattern taught to European enthusiasts by Indians so that they could develop a harmonium on its pattern with vibratory principles of the yazh).The draw-boy sits on an elevated platform manipulating the drawstrings (not in a pit).
12th century work Maanasollasa mentions Yanthraka with reference to dyeing in South India.The material coloured by a tool is mentioned by the text.Motichandra refers to term Chimpaka for a lady printer of calico (Chimpaka means calico)in 14th century and 15th century.And in 16th century Jaisi calls it Chapa,Maasir-i-Rahmi (1616(extols persons for designs(Tarhi /corrupted for south Indian Thari)for Chint(chintz)made at Sironj and this is definitely the designs from printing blocks.Sironj was a notable place for manufacture of chintz which was much in demand by Persian and European world.Direct colour impression was made on cloth with such designs.Chit was India’s speciality and its primacy in cloth manufacture and printing was undisputed and it had a very long history in Indian economy and trade relations.Tahir Wahid a 17th century poet said:My lifeless body gets life from the chitmakers by being used as printer’s blocks.”.Praising chintmakers of Khalif he says:One cannot pass him casually.For in his printer’s block(qalib)is the soul of a fairy.This shows the word meaning of qualib as well.Bahar –i-Ajam considers chappa as a Hindi word for printing block and adopted as such to Persian recently (in medieval times).The chaap and chint were Indian words adopted the world over establishing dominance of India in cloth printing and only in 1667 there had been a decline in calico printing and painting for home and for foreign markets including Persia ,as reported by Tavernier.That was because they had learnt the technique and started to produce it themselves.
Frenchman George Roque(1678)refers to wooden blocks and writes that the printer distinguished outlines by the lines and hollow of the first block.After it another block is used of same size and pattern.But in place of raised outlines of first block ,it had a hollow structure.Its voids went directly on imprint of first.The remainder of second block was without engravings to facilitate filling the ground with desired colour.When the ground was dry blocks with details of the design were applied in between black outlines of first block.After these impressions were dry,another block with rays (radiating lines)was used ,which gave shading to the flower by little lines.These were ordinarily of the colour of Indigo.
This also gives us an idea why indigo trade was very prominent in India.During the first millennia of Christian era the cotton industry was transferred to Cambodia and the existence of many of the instruments there proves the Indo-Cambodian cultural relationship and co-operation during that period.The principle of parallel worms did not spread to Europe until 19thcentury (Needham 1V .2.pp122)In Kangra paintings of Bhagavatha purana PL V which delas with migration From Gokula to Vrindavana the cotton gin is prominently shown.J.Marshall (Taxila.An illustrated account of archeological excavations 11 Cambridge 1951.pp 544 )speaks of iron axle for spinning wheels .Isami speaks of resentment of officers of Sultan Razia against her thus:-
That woman alone is good ,who works all the time with the charka
For a seat of honour would deprive her of reason.
Let pamba(cotton)be the woman’s companion
Grief her winecup
And the twang of the spindle will serve her well for her minstrel.
The derogatory remarks against women administrators and intelligentia is here,yet the notion of the author about weaving and spinning and music as the fitting professions for woman and his reference to certain instruments is noteworthy.The word pampa is used here for cotton also is interesting(Since there is a river in that name in Kerala ,where women are not allowed ,quite contrary to what Isami here says.).In Andhra Pampa is pronounced as Hampa and Amba and the Vijayanagara capital hampi is named after it (synonym for mother Goddess and for Cotton alike).
Treadles were used in China in 2nd century AD and in Europe in 12th century .In Egypt they were unknown.(Lynn white pp117-118.History of mechanical inventions Boston 1959).Heddle rod looms were equally useful in weaving carpets and tapestry weaves ,irrespective of whether they were horizontal or vertical,except the solitary difference of knotting-in a row of piles in carpet weaving and this was done by women in Persia who were married to Sultans and nobles and were sent as gifts from India so that a race of mixed Indo-iranian people (sankaravarga ) originated.