Ancient and medieval technologies of India

Indian medieval technology and its effects on Industrial revolution in Europe

Indian medieval period corresponds to the development of European technology during 15th to 17th centuries.Whetehr the mechanical principles used in Medieval India was diffused and modified by Europe?To answer this question let us see what was the technologies the Mughal India used.
1 Gearing:-Premodern India used two types of gears.The worm-gearing and the pin-drum.The gear is to change direction and or speed of motion.The worm gearing in India was a wooden cotton gin which was taken to Kampuchea(Cambodia) from India well before AD 1000.A worm is used in the sugarmills using wooden rollers.In 1695 Careri wrote:-Sugar cane is pressed between two great wooden roullers turned about by oxen ,whence they came out thouroughly squeezed.19th century British records show that they were still used in Gujrat,Deccan and Southern India.The cruder mortar and pestle prevailed in Gangetic plains.The two devices existed in Bengal and Central India.In Punjab an innovation by combining the rollers with pindrums gearing was used so that cattle can be used to drive the more efficient horizontal rollers.This was found in the Saqiva or Persian wheel .But the earliest form of it described is in Babur’s memoirs in the water-lifting mechanism of India.It is abundantly pictured in Mughal miniatures.The gearing is of wood and this has limitations.In areas with high water tables alternative devices used.Right-angled gearing (al-Jazari 1204-6)which was invented by Akbar (Abul Fazl 1595) but this is not seen in either Iran or India in any tool of craftsmen(pp 3 ).This was never made in metal in small ,more manageable form.
The Indian pindrum( M.S Khamsa BM Or .12208,d.1596) is fixed on a vertical post resting on a high pedestal.Top of pedestal consists of a saucerlike depression in middle so as to adjust with lower pyramidal (conical but rounded at end)end of vertical post.It minimized friction while the long handle fitted to vertical post moved in circular motion,while drawn by a pair of bullocks.This is how Indians were driving a Persian wheel.The horizontal axle fitted at one end with heavy round block with projected pegs.These pegs enmesh with the ribs of pin-drum.Pindrum was on axle which ahd at its other end a large wooden spoked wheel over a well.This wheel had a pot-garland over it which brought up water from inside well.The adjustment of the whole apparatus ,pindrum,axle gear-wheel stand at height of 7-8 feet above ground on which the bullocks move.This enabled water to be raised to a much higher point than the ground level.It could flow into watertanks,from which because of their higher level ,it could easily reach all parts of garden.
Another depiction(MS Jog Bashist d 1602 )show different arrangement of pin-drum.The axle with gear-wheel and pin-drum fixed to vertical post ,set a little above ground level .The handle which turned bullocks in circular motion fixed quite above the pindrum.Also depicted in miniatures of late rperiod(1610 and 1650).This is how the ordinary Persian wheel look like.The former type suited to palaces ,buildings and the latter for field irrigation.Th ewhol eaparatus is made of wood.Th egarland of pitchers made of rope-held earthen pots.In Aini Akbari MSS which is earlier a diagram of gun-clearing machine seen.Pushing mechanisms like bellows,syringes,water-mills seen in Mughal paintings.
2 Belt-drive
Spinning wheel.
Existed from 12th century at least .In Harivansa it is described.And in Razmanama (c 1582-84)its depiction s seen.
Isami’s reference composed in 1350 shows its use in India.By Mughal period it was used in every poor home.It can accelerate motion.It is a substitute for bow-string used to rotate drills since classic times.In Mughal miniatures the bow-string is seen.It was in the carpenter’s ,blacksmith’s and the jeweller’s instruments in India.by 17th century Europeans used it for diamond –drills.(which need more acceleration)The Indian diamond-cutting mill had a larger wheel but not large enough according to Taverner.
3.The screw:-
The threaded screw as metal-fixing device.In Europe from 15th century onwards.This replaced soldering ,rivets,wedge fittings.To cut grooves on screws powerful lathes needed.
The Indian method of screw was to fasten each of the two pieces that are to enter into one another ,some iron,copper and silver wire are turned screw-wise without any other art than souldering the wire to the pieces(Thevenot 1666)Hans Wolff describe screw in Persian metal locks:
Screw called Shikanja (press)used by book binders is depicted in Mughal miniatures.It has two parallel thick wooden planks with a pair of holes in both at either side breadthwise.Through holes two wooden grooved pegs pass to make the screw.The holes in planks too consisted of grooves in reverse order to that of pegs .Metallic screw was used in locks and Quisar noticed it in India in incense-burners .But no illustration seen in Mughal miniatures.
4Treadles:-Essentially levers operated by feet.In weaver’s loom.Treadles are united with levers and connecting rods to lift warp to form complicated weaving patterns.The lifting of warp-threads through use of treadles greatly quickened process of weaving.In Tutinama(c 1580-85)levers and connecting rods are shown while treadles are not visible.The horizontal –warp loom being the Pit loom.Anothe rdepiction(1590)show treadle (flat,foot-board)operated by feet.In Miftah-ul Fuzula the diagram and textual description exists.Europe got it from China in 12th century .Treadles were extended to lathes(13th century)to pipe organ(early 15th century)spinning wheel(16th century).This ws more in South India and never popular in Mughal India.
4.Crank:-
Lynn White gives importance to this next to wheel in development of machine designs.It developed late in Europe in 15th century.Crank handles in cotton gins in India.In Mughal miniatures and in Kangra paintings they are seen.
5.Springs:
Spring is as old as the bow.Hindi term Kamani and Persian term Kaman.In Mughal India used in locks and muskets(matchlocks).Metallic coiled or spiral springs in Europe in 1400,first for locks and then muskets.Clocks and watches were functioning on spring-drive.
6 Power
Use of water power by horizontal ungeared watermills in western Himalaya .Malik Ambar’s water-mill in Aurangabad is just a curiosity.Cattle power was made use of in Indian craft technology.Driving cattle round and round with a radial draw-bar to get continuos rotary motion .For this a rotary quern is needed.It is also used in thrushing ,oil press,sugar mill and water lift(Persian wheel).The stamping of coins in Mughal treasury was done manually and did not use cattle power.
Watermills rare in plains of India .A watermill in painting of 1603 seen.It shows rotary millstones driven by water power set on a stream in a hilly country.The mill has a horizontal water wheel.The axle is vertical,with upper end fixed in middle of upper milling –stone of flour mill.Lower end consists of long flat projections around it (to form water wheel).these projections being constantle pushed onward by water ,thereby rotating the upper milling stone.The container with an inverted cone feeds grain into the mill.A similar painting is seen in Chinese painting from Nung Shu in 14th century.

Absence of cattle power in driving bellows :-The good cast iron can only be produced in large forges or furnaces,given high temperatures by power-driven bellows.Such bellows were used in China earlier than Europe.Did India use only the skin and wood bellows which she had been using for ages?With such bellows the furnaces could be only small.Large pieces of copper or bronze had to be cast by collecting melted metal frm a number of furnaces,which will make Indian bronze good for nothing as a European observer said (1666 Indian travels of Thevenot and Careri pp 62).The deficiency would have been felt more in iron work.But then,how can we explain the presence of Mehrouli pillar and other huge iron monuments ,the huge hoards of good quality copper and bronze that were obtained in IVC and Harappan sites?So, use logic and think about the production of such metalworks in India which were several thousand years before medieval India .
The ownership of tools is always that of the artisan in India.The raw material and place of work is that of the employer.The artisans had highly sophisticated training and had expertise.In merchant controlled Decan diamond mines,in weaving ,ship-building industry,handicrafts and wood and metal works,carpentry,every field of production technology there were specialized ,inherited knowledge and Babur had commended upon this special feature in India.(Capacity of technological change in Mughal India Irfan Habib page 1-13 Technology in ancient and medieval India Anirudha Roy ,S.K.Bagchi 1986 ISBN 81-85055-95-5)

Industrial archeology is little in Indian historical period.Textual and literary references are there and surviving tools are less.The mughal paintings show mechanical principles and chemical processes .

7 syringes and metal squirts used by women to play Holi .Work on principle of cylinder and piston.Piston working in the cylinder ,creates a vacuum.It does not have a valve.Siphoning water and bailing out from ships and boats either rmanuaaly or by this device can be done.
8 Bellows
For mettullurgy and for musical instruments bellows are used.use of pair of bellows give continuous blast.For makingmetallic mirrors used (shown in Mughal miniatures).The bellows made of skin bags with delivery tube at bottom end connected to furnace sideways.opening the skin bag consist of two wooden clippers to stop air to be pumped into furnace.Ancient types used in China and India.Gold and copper smiths use iron pipe to blow.Iron pipe is tapering gradually towards end to make opening narrow.This also illustrated inMughal paintings.
9 mortar and pestle device for milling and crushing widespread in Medieval India.For oil and sugar presiing this was used.Sugar press(MS Shah Jahan nama d 1657)show three of them in an open field in separate enclosures.Long wooden post(pestle)loosely fits deep cavity in stone mortar fixed on ground.Handle attached to pestle moves circular fashion,by one or two bullocks.Cane has to be cut into pieces and this is shown in miniature.Thsi type co-existed in India with the press based on parallel worm (vertically mounted wooden rollers)until 17th century .Remains of large mortars with inscribed dates corresponding to AD 1553 and 1579 have been found.
10
Bowstrings is a weaving tool /textile industry .It is used as a carding-bow in textile industry.Carding of cotton both by beating it with stick and by the bow.Both seen in Mughal miniatures.Two types of carding bows depicted in Miftah –ul Fuzala.
Bowstring drill is used by a man to rotate axle of a tool used to polish or cut precious stones and the textual evidence is seen in 1666(Indian travels of Tehvenot and Careri)and is depicted in a 17th century Mughal miniature.
11 other illustrated medieval technologies:-
Spectacles,making of mirrors,distillation,filtration,matchlock,time-reckoning devices,tools and implements for agriculture,means of road and water transport,bridges,dams .These are not yet explored fully by scientists or by historians interested in science history.
12.Fire arms in Mughal India
The firearm was called baan ,a kind of flying fire with automatic take off capacity.The 19th century scholars and chroniclers accepted the rocket as an English equivalent of Indian Vaan/Baan.Ain-i-Akbari in a list of weapons mentions it as item No:77.”A kahak Banha (rocket),a sort of firework was discharged against the royal army and one of them fell among thorn bushes and made such a noise that one of the elephants got alarmed and by confusion produced a great rout among the foe.”.
When Nadir shah captured Delhi he seized a huge number of rockets from artillery men of Mughal army.(Irwine W.The army of Indian Mughals.Eurasia publications New Delhi 1962.pp 148 Q Shahdat-i-Farrukshiar wa Julus-i-Muhammad Shaw by Miza Muhamad Baksh Ashob BM 1832).From 16th to first half of 19th century Indian army used this equipment from historical evidences.In 18th century its fame rose because both Hyder and Tipu used it at large scale.In 1783-84 Tipu sent an envoy to court of Ottoman Turk Sulta at Constantinople and the presents were rockets and other valuables.The sultan appreciated the rockets because such things he never had seen in his country ,says Mir Hussain.(Miles.W.History of Tipu Sultan. Eng Trans Sushil kumar Gupta (Ind)Pvt ltd.2nd Ed 1958.pp 58)Therefore ,this must be considered as a purely Indian discovery.He renamed them as Shihab,meaning a falling star.Two rockets in Victoria memorial were presented by Nizam of Hyderabad and in the information sheet ,it is called either baan or Naadi.These were part of artillery in Golconda fort when Aurangazeb attacked.
Description of European authors Forbes,Moor,Wilks,Fitzclarence who has seen the instrument in mid 18th and 19th century is as follows:-A bigger rocket is an iron tube 15-25 cms in length,5-8 cm diameter.Tied with leather straps to a bamboo stick whose length vary from 1.5 to 2 meters.Bigger tube and longer stick had been reported by some authors.In bigger ones,the iron tube carry nearly 500 gm gunpowder which enable rockets to fly a distance of nearly a Km.It makes greatnoise during the flight.
Varieties of rockets:- Kashak baan or ground rocket is makes loud noise.Sound made by an additional whistle like contraption attached to tube or the shaft.They have serpentine motion,and on striking rise again and bounce along till their force is spent.
The exploding type gunpowder at its extremity causes it to explode when it has reached its object.
In the dagger and spikefitted ones,the dagger-blade or the spike is fitted to fore-end of shaft of stick.
The rockets were not thrown like a javelin but just released.An additional impetus by rocketmen is mentioned by Williamson :-The fuse at vent is lighted ,the direction is given by the operator.A slight cast of hand commences the motion and then the dangerous missile proceeds to its destination.
The rocketmen were trained in the use of such weapons.The elevation proportional to varying dimensions of cylinder and distance of object to be struck ,as those projected to any distance to describe a parabola of considerable height ,has to be known .The rocketman thus should know the principle as well as the manual operation and should be well trained with expertise and practice.When the flight is numerous,their momentum is always sufficient to destroy a man or a horse,says Williamson.
In Mughal manuscripts the word Quichi-i-baan comes.It is a stand for launching rockets.A mounted Shutarnel is a canon that can be carried on a camel.Its mount reminds one of the scissors.The name X-shaped tackle with the shaft makes a comfortable stand for launching.Tackles of this type are used by washerpeople of India for drying wet clothes.It allows quick and easy adjustment of elevation to the rocket.The device was helpful in ramparts of forts in wartimes.Similar device was used for observing the sky in peace times.(Mounting any machine is done on it).When guns which can be used by releasing by hand the help of the tackle was not needed.Thus a new work Baan-ondaz was introduced later.
In battle of Samugarh(1652)regarding position of rocketmen Bernier says Dara placed in front of all the canons in a line tieing each other with chains ,then lined a great number of camel-guns followed by musketeers of cavalry and the rest.Aurangazeb and Murad also did in the same order except that in midst of troop of some omraw ,they placed a few men with banners which is a kind of grenade (rockets)fastened to a stick ,that may be cast very far through cavalry and which terrifies the horses and hurts and kills them.Hyder Ali also employed the same technique.His artillery was in advance and cavalry (musketeers)behind and then the Bandars or rocketsmen on the flanks.Rocket corps was part of artillery.(Rogers Tr .Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.Royal Asiatic society India .1909 pp 314).
From days of Jahangir to Hyder Ali rockets were carried on camels and each camel carry 10 rockets besides rocketsmen.Besides they were carried on chariots,each cart carrying 15 rockets besides necessary attendants.
Agnapatra ,a 18th century Marathi treatise of RamachandraPant Amatya says the Baan should be kept in a central room in the cellar free from moisture.Every fortnight the Hawaldar takes out Daru(gunpowder)and heat it in sun and again keep in the cellar duely sealed.(Gode. Manufacture and use of firearms in India between 1450-1850 .BharatheeyavidyaBhavan.Vol 1X Bombay,1948 ,p 213-215).
The length and diameter of big rocket(Victoria memorial) are 25 cms and 5 cms respectively.Shaft length is 1.25 meters its diameter only 2 cms.A thin slice measuring 26 cms is taken off from shaft near its foreend.This is to house the powder container.The powder container is cylindrical in shape.Its one end is closed (the vent-end)and other end open till powder is poured(muzzle end)After loading this latte rhalf closed with a circular iron plate placed over the charge and the side wall made to collapse over circular plate.There is a central region in vent end for ignition.The shaft holds container with muzzle end near end of shaft.
The bigger model design has a constriction in middle of container in its longitudinal length.Sharp endges have been avoided in its design specially on vent end.Diameter of container on vent end slightly less than diameter of muzzle end.This variations are done for improving the grip between container and shaft as well as for improving the flight capability.The iron containers were made of hammering method and not by forg-welding technique.
There are a few things to understand from this.The iron technology and the knowledge of relation of distance,speed of missile,power of ignited energy particles,ratio of diameter,length etc were all known to the makers of these instruments.The constituents of the gunpowder to make them behave in the desired manner shows the chemical technology known.The powder in the canon and guns was different from that used in the rockets.
The description of Agneyasthra,Naagasthra(serpentine) etc in the Kurukshethra and Rama-Ravana war has to be analysed in this light.The arrangement of chariots which carry such Sasthra (weapons) or Baana (Ban of Medieval India) and the prolonged practice of the experts in their prayoga (use)has to be seen in a new light then.The same principles are used in the temple festivals of India in fireworks like Vaan (baan)with a serpentine motion like a fireball or a falling star etc but with lesser power than a missile for warfare.Thus the physics,and chemistry and technology of ancient Indians requires more vigourous search for the roots of such mechanisms.
13.Mettullurgy and Coinage.
A coin is a piece of metal of prescribed weight ,embellished with designs and or legend produced under direction of an authority (private or public)for its use in medium of exchange.It involves procurement of metals,preparation of blanks,manufacturing of apparatus for minting,and process of minting.In India specimens of coins made of gold,silver,copper,lead,billion,potin ,bronze and brass have been unearthed in various archeological sites.
Classification of Indian coins on basis of minting techniques:-1 Punch-marked 2.Cast .3.Repouse 4.Die-struck
For punchmarked coins the prescribed quantity of metal and alloys have to be melted in a crucible and molten metal left to cool as a lump or cast into sheets of required thickness.In case a lump ,it has to be beaten out into a sheet.Strips cut out from the sheet are divided into pieces of same weight (for which a accurate balance is needed)and final adjustments made by cutting small bits from one or more corners of heavier pieces.The sheets could be of required size in square,rectangular,oblong,bar-shaped,round or oval.If thick the rectangular and square pieces will look like ingots.The pieces have prescribed weights ,technically known as blanks,were slightly heated and then impressed with devices from different dies punched on them on one or both of the two sides (obverse and reverse).The deeply struck devices look like incuses on a flat and fairly broad surface.If a bar-shaped blank was struck heavily with two devices at two ends it would naturally bend in middle resulting in a bent-bar coin.
Irregularly round and oblong coins can be formed from drops of molten metal .here the dropped blank instead of cast-blank was stamped with symbols in molten/semi-molten stage.Saucershaped and small coins were made by dropped blanks.
All were struck by dies and hence called die-struck coins.Obverse and reverse dies were struck simultaneously .Or several symbols on same side with punches from different dies ,not being struck simultaneously as in archaic coins.These with more than one punch is called the punchmarked coins.The coins with multiple punches and a single punch on one side loosely classed as the archaic die-struck coins.The coins with not more than one symbol on one side were circulating in inner alia the period of regular minting of punchmarked pieces,according to P.Curriel and D.Schlumberger 1953;J.Marshall ,Taxila vol2 .Cambridge pp 843-851 .The Bhir mound (Taxila)coins show circulation of punch-marked coins in 4th century BC in India.Chaman-i-Hazuri mound shows the punchmarked coins use in 5th century BC.The Arthasasthra suggests the highlevel of minting and mettullurgy in Maurya period .
Articles Koutilya mentions in the counterfeiter of coins(Kootaaroopakaaraka or metalsmith who makes coins).
Metals,alkalis,crucibles,charcoal,bellow,tongs,hammer,chisel,anvil and die engraved with designs (bimba).Lumps of metals purified and they and alloys melted in crucible and the molten metal with hardening alloy cast into sheets by hammering.Sheets or strips from sheets cut into pieces of required size and weight.Sheets or blanks bleached with alkali.he cold or slightly heated blanks placed one after another on anvil and stamped by die bearing the sign in the negative with help of a hammer.Koutilya recommends minting of silver with copper coins.Lakshanadhyaksha(Mint supervisor)should manufacture silver coins with 1/4th part copper and a maasha of supporting material(Beeja/Vija)which is hardening alloy consisting of iron,tinn lead or antimony.In a silver coin(panam)weighing 16 maasha ,11 masha is pure silver .In copper coins the the sustaining material Aavija (hardening alloy)was 1/4th of its total weight.
The process involves preparation of moulds,melting of metal ,casting in moulds,etching negative of the sign on blank mould made of heat-resistant plastic clay,or on mould of cast metal.A clay mould with positive impression is also needed .This is made also on metal as a model.By pressing this positive impression on a lump of heat-resisting plastic clay prepared according to the desired shape (round,square,rectangle etc)and size of coin,the mould is made with a negative impression.The mould with raised rim around the coin-socket was then baked.
Molten liquid of predetermined quality and quantity is poured into mould.Gradually hardened ,it receives the positive impression found on negative mould.The copper coins with image on only one side is doen with this process.
If a coin needs images on both faces,a second mould is prepared and an opening made through rim of each of the moulds.The openings and the moulds are joined face to face.Molten metal poured through the channel and into the cavity thus formed.Some cast coins found joned by a bar of metal indicate they were cast in pairs.Each pair of mould bearing obverse and inverse devices,fcing each other were joined with another pair of moulds by a channel.Molten metal flow through a hole in the channel ,into each socket.But in the process some portion of the metal could dry up in channel resulting in a bar joining both coins.The bar can be broken or detached from coins.
Youdheya coin moulds at Sunet consist of a pair of discs bound back to back (by blank faces)with help of mortar.Sometimes pairs of discs ,each forming a set of moulds for obverse and inverse devices ,were placed one above the other.This makes a cylindrical pile.The engraved face of each pair of discs face each other while the blank side is attached to outside of the immeadiately lower or upper pair (as the case may be).The opening on rim of each pair was for channeling molten metal into inner side.The series of discs are then plastered over ,on the outside,leaving only the channels leading to sockets uncovered.Molten metal could now be poured into different moulds separately or made to flow down through a vertical hollow column communicating with channels leading to the coins sockets of moulds placed vertically.The practicality of this method is indicated by the U or V shaped cut leading right to socket of some sanchi/sunet moulds.For the deep cutting through the side of each of these moulds seems to have been designed to allow the molten metal run directly into the socket from some central channel like the vertical hollow channel column mentioned above.The method of letting molten metal flow down a column is less time consuming than pouring through opening in each pair of discs.Several coins made in single operation.But the risk of loosing metal before reaching socket is there.Two or more cylindrical piles of moulds have been joined together round a vertical axis canal fed through a crater at top,and similar moiulds were discovered in Lingwell gate England (B.Sahney .The technique of casting coins of ancient India Bombay 1945. )
Several coin sockets in single coin moulds were discovered at Atranji Khera(Taxila piece)either circular or rectangular.The rectangular show negative mould of Huvishka coin in devices arranged in rows.Only the socket of the row nearest the opening on rim of mould received molten metal through channels connecting them with opening.The sockets of succeeding rows receives metal through chaaneels connecting it with nearest socket of earlier row and also the same row.The funnel like inlet on one side of mould narrows into a final canal which feeds the nearest coin socket and it is from this socket that all others have to be fed by narrow connecting channels.A similar arrangement is seen in Roman moulds from Egypt by Dattari
A complete set of three discs were found in Mathura.The top and bottom ones blank on their exposed sides.The inner faces bear coin sockets ,the central discs have coin impressions on both faces.Traces of luting on outer side indicate these were plastered over.A part of edge of middle disc is cut in V shape notch ,with a straight channel on each face leading from notch to a point just beyond center.From this main channel 4 short branch channels came off in staright angles two from each side of it.The ends of tehse 4 channels and of the main channel communicated with 5 coin sockets .To complete the opening at edge of triple mould ,the 2 outer discs were excavated on their inner sides into shallow depressions which were either fitted opposite each other (on either side of notch in middle disc)or lay obliquely on two sides of main disc.Molten metal poured through channels made of the V notch (on two sides of middle disc)and depressions(on inner side of outer disc).
The elaborate process of coin-casting in early Youdheya at Khokrakot,near Rohtak has each disc with a hole in center ,from which radiating channels run into 8 coin-sockets arranged in a circle.B.Sahney thinks first a clay disc was prepared around a peg on middle of a base plate enclosed by hollow cylinder.The an 8-rayed metal with hollow center slipped down the peg and pressed on clay.At the end of each of the radiating channel thus excavated,a coin model was pressed to create a coin socket bearing a negative impression of the obverse or reverse concerned.two discs made in this way,coupled face to face made one pair.Two such discs carrying one obverse and te other inverse impressions,were coupled face to face and fixed to each other with help of tenons.Several pairs of discs placed one above other,and marked with grooves cutting the outer face of the rims formed one set.A number of such sets ,dried in sun,placed one above other,then plastered over with paste of clay mixed with unhusked grain and baked in furnace.The central hole of top disc and so of all discs kept open.These holes form a hollow shaft.Molten metal poured down through it from top,run by means of radiating canals of each pair of discs,into cavities of coin sockets.Casting was done while the pile of moulds are still hot.When cooled it was broken up and coins were then taken out and cleaned.Rohtak moulds are comparable to ancient Chinese system of casting coins in a circle.The Rohtak system can make large number of coins in single operation.Disadvantage is that the moulds are broken and lost in the process.The disadvantage of difference in weight of cast coins of same denomination existed since the metal weight is not controlled (that reaches each socket).faulty casting allow air bubbles in metal ,fragility in coins,distorted coin shape .
Process of repousse technique which allowed numerous coins but is time consuming and laborious ,and does not allow two impressions on two sides was the least popular among the people probably the demerits overweighed its merits.
The more sophisticated,methods of Gupta,PreGuptha period for gold,silver,copper,lead or billion (alloy of copper and silver/or silver and tin)or potin(compound of copper,lead,zink and tin)were popular.In post-Gupta period base metals were used for coinage and most of the defects in coins were due to this.
The old die-striking system of Indian coinage was continued during Mughal times as evidenced form Dravyapariksha of Thakkura Pheru and Ain-i-Akbari .Thakkura Pheru was master of minting in empire of Allauddin Khilji in Delhi.He discusses how the silver is purified(Sodhana)and mixture of metallic alloys of it (with copper and lead)made.The testing (Chaasamya)the degree of purity of metals is dealt with in detail.He calles the blowpipe which is curved used to keep the low temperature firing as Vamkanaali.
According to Ain-i-Akbari whoever wants to strike a coin(a merchant)brings necessary gold,silver and other metals to the mint owned by the emperor.Metal is melted and poured into trenches in a tablet of clay for casting it into pieces of ingots.In case of casting gold and silver the trenches are besmeared with grease and for copper ingots the trenches are sprinkled with ashes.
The impure ingots are melted and cast in mould to prepare plates of each weighing 6-7 masha and measuring 6 fingers in length and breadth.The plates are measured by a assay master (as mentioned in Arthasasthra)in a mould of copper.The suitable plates are stamped by him to prevent alterations (in content of metal)and to show the work is done perfectly (Like the IST mark in our modern times!).The plates washed in clean water ,stratified with help of mixture of saltpeter and dust of raw bricks using 4 seers of each of these materials for stacking the metal of the quantity of 100 Jalali Mohr.The plates are covered with cowdung (upla in Hindi)and whole burned gently (with wind blown into fire through a windpipe/blowpipe.When cooled ,the ashes removed(called Khak-i-khali in Persian and saloni in Hindi)After firing plates twice plates(then called Sita-i)washed in clean water.This operation repeated till 6 mixtures and 18 fires had been applied.The plates again washed.The assay master then break one of the plates.A soft or mild sound at the time of breaking indicated the metal’s attaining sufficient purity.But if the sound was harsh ,plates were fired three times more.Then a quantity of one masha was taken out of each plate and a separate plate was made of the aggregate.
The fineness of gold is then tested with a test called the Baanwaari (Sanskrit Varnamaalika,Praakrith Vanamaalika).This test requires a few long needles made of brass or such ametal ,and tipped with little pellets of gold of different degrees of fineness.After drawing a few lines on a touch stone with help of purified plate of gold ,some other lines drawn on it by gold pellet of required fineness affixed to one of the needles.Then comparing the sets of lines the assay master could understand whether the purified gold was sufficiently fine to be used for coining.If not,fired again .
Sometimes two tolas of fired gold and two tolas pure gold are covered with the above mixture and fired.If both kinds had equal weight after firing and subsequent cleaning fired gold is considered to be having sufficient degree of purity.The refined gold is melted and cast into ingots.
Purification of silver:-A quantity of adulterated material put together with proportionate amount of lead in a dish or bowlshaped hole besmeared with cowdung and ashes of Mugheelaan wood.The material covered with coal and fired.For blowing a pair of bellows used.Firing till metal melts.Repeat four times.Attainment of lighteninglike brightness by molten metal and commencement of its hardening from sides considered proof of its required degree of purity.Hardened silver discs assayed either by Vanamaalika system or by determining whether the loss of silver was within prescribed limit.The refined silver cast into plates.Aini Akbari does not discuss smelting of copper in this section .But it had been used for coinmaking and minting procedures.
Abul-Fazl notes:-In Iran and Turan they cannot cut the pieces without a proper anvil.But Hindustani workmen can cut them even without that instrument ,so exactly that there is no difference of a single hair ,which is remarkable enough.”
The blanks had to be stamped with 2 dies.Dies were made of steel.The engraving with devices and legends in negatives was done.The good engraver had to be a also a skillful calligrapher.The lower die was embedded in an anvil and the upper die was fixed to a punch.The blanks were placed one after another by the sikkanchi between anvil and punch and dies and by strength of hammer both sides stamped.
One of the dies fixed on flooor and the other (attached to a piece of 8 inches)held in right hand ,and holder squates on heels,and placing blank on fixed die with “Inconceivable quickness”and with help of thumb and middle finger.Another man strikes upper die from behind with a mall and thereby transformed the blank into a coin carrying devices on both sides.The first person dexterously removes with forefinger the coin from dies.In Indore mint of 18-19 centuries a silver mint was cleaning blanks in boiled solution of tamarind and salt.Copper coins of medieval and early modern age used folded strips for copper coins.
Types of utilitarian modifications of techniques is witnessed from 18th century which caused a compromise in quality (this is after European take over and lack of proper availability of metals for local mints )The coins became more crude and less accurate and less beautiful.The low quality coins is probably because Europe took over supremacy and the coins minted by them was slowly replacing the ancient methods.In middle of 17th century the die-cutting techniques were improved in Europe and in 1645 the handmade hammered coins were prohibited in France in favour of Machine-made coins.In 1662 and 63 warrants were issued in England by Governement and ensured striking of coins only by screw press.Naturally ,justlike other handicrafts ,Indian system was lost to obsolescence to such a degree that only a few researchers are aware of what it was from Indus valley days to the medieval time in India and how it was zealously preserved and improved by our ancestors.The development of European industrial revolution was on the shoulders of the ancient science of India and its technology is something always forgotten by the people of India as well as of Europe.Down the memory lane is a wellresearched scientific evidence for its existence and gradual improvement and continuity .India being open to new developments accepted the new changes without any problem.That shows the scientific temper.The problem was not with modern science or technology ,but for the way it was used for suppression of a section of people.And unless we understand this aspect of Gandhian revolution,all our peace talks will be in vain.
The ancient and the modern:-
The Bhird mound coins ,coins which Alexander minted in India,of Philip Aridaes,and of archemenean Siglos are old coins of India.Philip Aridaceous died in BC 317 .The coins of Alexander and of Philip are therefore well before the Mughal times we just mentioned.The hoards were buried in 4th century BC .This is evidence for the punchmarked ,bent bar and minute coin circulation and its preparation /technology in India before 4th century BC.Greek coins dates back to 4th century BC and a few of them in 5th century BC has also been found.(C.Seltman.Greek coins.2nd ed.London 1955).The Chaman-i-Hazuri in kabul (greek coins)are of 4th century BC.
In Buddhist jathaka tales the purchase of establishments with Karshapana is mentioned .In Bharhut monument of 1st century BC this story is depicted.The engraved pieces in Barhut is similar to punchmark coins so,Karshapana must be punchmarked coins and they existed during Budha’s time in India which is 6th- 5th century BC .(Note that Greek coinage also starts in this period ).Ashtadhyayi of Paanini ,in Pre-Mourya times refers to karshapana and Arthasasthra is an authority of procedures of minting.The prescription of Koutilya for purification of different types of metals is important since these procedures were used even in Mughal India of medieval period ,as continuation of the system.
Koutilya says a Dhaarana of silver weighs 16 masha .Dharana is the name of a silver coin called Karshaapana,or simply pana and sometimes Puraana.For him a roopadarsaka or coin-examiner tests purity of Hiranya(gold) and this was continued even in medieval period of India.A small number of coins,one of them attributed to ChandraGuptha 2 ,made of brass has been unearthed (B.N.Mukherjee .Art in Gupta and Post-Guptha coinage of North India Lucknow 1985 pp 32 )Kshaara ,a caustic alkali mentioned by Chaanakya in Arthasasthra as used by a forger to fabricate coins was for interalia blanching blanks in regular mints.The same practice was employed in minting die-struck coins mentioned in medieval times.The negative impression of a design was also made on a block of stone and then used as a die .And a positive impression could be cut on high relief on lower end of a bar or punch and then to punch it on soft metal to produce a intagliated die with negative impression.This method known as hubbing allowed die-cutters to have identical punch from one master punch.The positive impression could be impressed while bar or punch carrying it was hot,on a piece of hard wood.The latter could then be served for purpose of die.The seated Goddess type Gaangeyadeva ,the bull,the horsemen etc were used by several dynasties from time immemorial in India.The bull and horseman device was not used by Shaahi dynasty alone.Bull is a sign of IVC and Gajalakshmi is also an Indian sign for prosperity.The horseman is a sign of royalty and the army.About the skilled engraver and calligraphers ,they could cut different kinds of letters in steel ,in such a manner as to equal copyslips of the most skillful calligraphers as refered by Abul Fazl.
The Indore mint could produce in a day 10000 rupees employing fifty silver smiths ,ten or twelve stampers ,6-8 refiners and two meltersMechanisation of mint started in Italy .Leonardo Da vinci (1452-1519)drew pictures of a machine for cutting blanks.He was the first to say in Europe that to make a perfect coin it should have perfect smooth rims,round shape ,perfect weight,breadth ,thickness.For this uniform plates of metal have to be made,drawn through same press.
Bramante devised a screw press .Celline produced a treatise on milled and hammered coins in 1558.Henry 2 of France tried to make perefectly round coins.In 1552 he set up a mint for this.Elizebeth 1 tried to mechanise the royal mint at Tower of London.P.Blondeu invented machine for inscribing or graining edge of coin in 17th century.The method was improved by T.Hanson later.
The right of minting was obtained by British East India company in India from Siraj Ud Daulah on Feb 7th 1757.The first mint ,they inaugurated in Calcutta in 1759-60.Adoption of European style of collar ,rim,or milled edges in mints of India happened in late 18th-19th centuries.Machinemade coins produced from Calcutta from 1790 had oblique-milled edges.The coins minted from 1818 had upright –milling.Coins with plain edges but with a collar were introduced in 1832.Madras mint established in 1671 was equipped with coin-producing machinery only in 1807.At Bombay machinery was introduced in 1832.Machinemade coins were produced from Ferrukkabad(Feroke in Calicut)from 1807 and Benarus in 1815.These mints closed down at first half of 18th century .This was the first stage of mechanization of mints by Europeans in India.
In 1788 an authorized mint run by M.Boulton and D Watt near Birmingham began manufacturing coins with screw press.By a system of cylinders,cogs,chains and pulleys the coining process was improved and made more productive.Coins for foreign countries and colonies were struck here.Copper coins for Bengal and Bombay were minted here in late 18th and 19th century(C.C.Chamberlain ).In 1799 Russsia started a plant of Boulton Watt type.
Instead of manpower,and power of bulls and horses etc four steam engines were used to power rolling mills ,cut the blanks and drive the coining process.In 1839 a German named Ulhorn invented machine for squeezing upper dies smoothly down on to the blank.Improved versions of this installed in Paris,Sydney,Melbourne,London .In 1882 the Royal mint felt necessity of taking help of electrical power for minting.
The location of first mint of Calcutta is not known.The second one was between Strans Road and Church lane.The 3rd building of Calcutta mint on Strand Road was used for coining from 1819.Steampowered engines of Boultn and Watt as in Royal mint commissioned there.In 1860 a self-contained plant for producing copper prices was annexed to Starand Road Mint.
The St Fort George mint opened in 1671 (?1661)was given in a charter issued in 1686 by King James 2 ,”Power to coin and money as was usually coined by native princes”.The mint followed the Indian minting system and was not using the technology of Europe .In 1742 a letter from Sydney Faxall of St George Fort shows he,as a worker in the mint knew the difference between systems at Madras mint and Royal mint in Tower of London.(One made hand-made coins and the other machine-made).Till 1807 Madras mint did not get machine-made technology.
Indian coinage acts XV11 & XX11of 1935 created conditions conducive to mint coins of a standard better than the ones struck by the company before.
The improvement of technique was such that in 1862 mints in Bombay,Calcutta ,Madras produced 703 million pieces(408+25+270 respectively).Copper nickel or cupronickel coins were first issued in reign of Edward V11.These coins of one Anna denomination had a serrated edge ,wherein though the main outline of coin was circular the edge was scalloped.This shape influenced the 12 sided three-pence in England.Nickel coins introduced in India in 1946.Calcutta minted coins for native Indian states and for other countries.
The modern methods were introduced also in Hyderabad mints.The new mint in Alipore ,Calcutta established in 1952 and Bombay mint manufacture medals,tokens ,badges and coins.Rate of daily production in Indian mints is impressive (figures of 1979).Bombay mint produce 3 millions per day and Hyderabad 1.3 million a day.Calcutta mint has 3 million per day.Still the money market feels shortage due to various factors ,especially of lower denominations.

Now we have seen how the engraving system ,and coinage etc worked in India right from the period of Indus valley/Harappan/Mehrgarh seals and coins and script engraving upto the introduction of modern technology.Such a scientific system needs a very strong unified administrative system and advanced knowledge of mettullurgy and economy of the land is undoubtful.The knowledge of mettullurgy of Indians during IVC period (both by archeology and by literature survey ) and its continuation is noteworthy .

Mettullurgy of Medieval India (16th to 18th centuries)

Origin of Ferrous or iron technology started in Iron age.The iron was developed indigenously gradually and not by introduction from outside.The scholars classify the iron age into three epochs in India based on archeological finds of iron .
1.1500 BC to 1000 BC Ahar,Pirak in west and in the karnatik
2.From 1000 BC -800 BC West India ,Karnatik,North-West Malwa
3.From 800 BC-500 BC .Gangetic valley and the delta region (first evidence)and general use in all other regions.After this perid the production of iron implements became less uniform ,with centers in Bengal,Madhyapradesh,Andhra,Tamil Nad,Punjab,Kashmere,Orissa.
1.Iron ores are widespread in Indian sub-continent .(Outside alluvial plains of Ganga/Indus and Brahmaputhra rivers).
2.Even the poorest ores of iron could be utilized after winnowing and washing into workable quantities and the people were experts in that.
3 Methods of roasting and smelting them by artisans.Heat or roast in open pit to clean volatile impurities and then heat to semimolten state to obtain rough bloom.This bloom is heated and beaten to remove more difficult impurities such as carbon.This process requires great skill because the ironsmith can either beat and heat the iron till it become wrought iron (less than 0.06% of carbon)which was most malleable and easy-to use .Ot he can stop at midway between pig iron and wrought iron (higher % carbon 0.1 -0.9%)so as to give Steeled iron.This is tougher and more resistant to corrosion.Thus Indian artisan moved from impure bloom in 1500 BC to steeled iron in 500 BC over a period of 1000 years .
By 500-400 BC a different type of steel was produced in Andhrapradesh called Seric (later wootz)steel.This was made by carburizing chips of wrought iron into steel.The wrought oron is placed in contact with wood and carbonaceous matter and heated in sealed clay crucible at low temperature (so that complete liquefaction does not happen).Melting point of iron is lowered by carbon yet the complete liquefaction is prevented.The iron crucibles were heated in a current of air till iron become red hot and plastic.Then allowed to cool slowly,.(for 24 hours)until it absorbed a fixed amount of carbon to make it into steel known as wootz to Europeans (a corruption of word Ukku in Telugu Urukku in Tamil/Malayalam)On cooling it forms a hemispherical disc of 5 inch diameter.These cakes were shipped to centers of sword production including Damascus in Syria.Thus famous Indian wootz steel and skilled swordsmiths of Damascus were equally benefited .They made the best prized category of swords in entire world.
We know sword was used in India even before 1500 BC and iron smelting and making tools was known to IVC people .That means the preparation and technology had existed at least from that period.The long localized monolpoly of Andhra in its production was because of the good quality ore availability and expertice of artisans of the South India .Th eslow cooling of mother metal after absorption of carbon fromm wood,would lead to hyper-eutection ferrocarbon alloy with partially and heterogeneously spheroidised cementities having a carbon content between 1.2-1.8 %.Holes were bored through center of these discs and then cut open longitudinally.On beating,tempering,sharpening and washing with mild acid ,surface of blade shone with intricate wavy pattern the best Jauhar(pattern)being circles and waves popularly called the lahriyadaar (see these patterns in IVC articles and in the Kolam paintings of TamilNad/Andhra as well .These are the signs of prosperity and Lakshmi/Saraswathy/Sakthy)To this ady attempts are being made to produce this in mass scale because of its flexibility and hardness .Russians and Europeans tried to study this in 19th century and it lead to science of Metal Crystallography as called today .Jerzy Piazkowsky of Poland evolved scientific criteria to solve the problem of several duplications of Damascus steels.
The pattern fabrications attempts were done in Persia,Central Asia and Europe and within India itself.Thus Rajasthan artisans heat-weld strips of wrought iron and steel and twisted and beaten it to produce a wavy surface as of Andhra iron.This is called welded Damascus or Sakela.Wootz was a freak of technological development

Iron was used for agricultural tools and axe and sickles,ploughshares,hoes and in making of household utensils,and for preparation of some special Rasaayana/ayurvedic medicines.In Mysore ,Canara and Malabar open pit mines ,small clay furnaces,primitive bellows were used in all villages for this purpose so that each village was selfsufficient in availability of equipments for food production.The furnace design,its size and height,use of self-inflating bellows or construction of mud and bamboo hoppers for feeding furnace existed in urban and military centers and in the royal cities.The ironsmiths of Birbhum supplied all urban centers inBengal with their products.The geared power of bullock driven Persian wheel was used to operate the bellows .The swords of Pathan and Indur,daggers of Gujarat(on river Chenab)armour of Delhi ,Gwalior and Agra,hardware of Bhirbhum and Orissa and all the rural construction centers succumbed to adverse political and socioeconomic conditions when the British East India company intervened in administration and trade and economics of India.

Non-ferrous metallurgy:-
Indian copper ,bronze articles are known right from BC 4000 and beyond from the excavations of Indus valley and Harappan sites.Old bronze and brass vessels were recycled and reused in production by Indian artisans.Since Malachite and other carbonate ores undergo reduction at 750 degree C ,a small ground-pit surrounded by fire-clay rings to enforce a good draught of air(enhanced by bellows)with opening for extracting molten copper was used for smoldering.(Concise history of science in India pp 300)The ore is crushed to powder ,mixed with cowdung,(reducing agent)and rolled in balles called Pindi or pinda and roasted .The charge consisted of roasted ore ,charcoal and iron slag acting as flux.The slag is first drawn off ,and smelted copper which accumulates at bottom of furnace using a strong blast from below ,is finally cast into bars.Similar equipment was used for tin and lead.
Zinc has a tougher proposition since it oxidizes very rapidly and had to be distilled(b.p.900 degree C)in airtight reducing environment.In Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna(9-10th century AD)the rasaka(zinc carbonate)was made to yield zinc metal in a sealed retort in presence of carbon and this makes India the birthplace of this technique(pp79 ch.Mettullurgy in medieval India . Technology in ancient and medieval India by Anirudha Roy and S.K.Bagchi).Zinc production by Indian alchemists in 10th-12th century was at a high stage of developments from examination of such retorts with metal in its neck.This was a laboratory research and applied in industry even before that from the equipments and articles obtained from Indus valley sites.The confusion is because of terminology used by Persian and English language .
The Ain gives 3 compositions for various types of brass but he use the term Ruh-i-tutiya for zinc,an old Persian name for zinc oxide which sublimates as a white smoke(ruh)on reducing zinc calamine and which condensed on iron gratings above roasting pit in a form resembling egg-shells.It was normal practice to use the oxide,carbonate or sulphide ore of zinc in brass alloys for sake of convenience but then the percentage would only be rough.
Tallying % of zinc in three types of brass and properties assigned to them ,Abul Fazl is referring to metallic zinc (jast)when he writes ruh-i-tutiya and the practice of adding rough amounts of metal ores in alloys was there to ensure greater variety of alloys.
Three types of copper-zinc brasses in India during Ain-i-Akbari:-
1 with 28%zinc
2.with 33%zinc
3 with 42%zinc.This is hard and brittle and can only be cast.
Earlier references have names like Kamsya or kansa (copper and tin in ratio 4:1).
Bhangar copper and lead in ratio 8:3
Copper-tin alloy widely used in India for utensils and canon due to hardness,strength,appearance.The first two are safid-rui,bad-rui or pat-rui in Persian language.The largest canon in Bijapur the Malik-i-Maidan was cast in 1549 with an alloy of 80.4 copper and 19.6 % tin.Rui (bronze)is a term the Persians use for copper,bronze and lead.This ambuiguity of term resulted in confusion.In the dictionary Ghiyas-ul-Laghat of 19th century we find this ambuiguityrecorded as, Rui is the natural one found in mines (probably Antimony sulfide)and the artificial one made from copper and tin .The problem of terminology became more when they dealt with alloys of 3-8 different constituents.Abul Fazl is incoherent when he writes:-Haft-josh like Karchini is nowhere to be found.It consists of 6 metals.Some call it Taligun while others give this name to common copper.Thus in 3 short sentences he confuses the identity of 3 different alloys.Karchini was the term given to Chinese cuproarsenic alloy for using poisonous arrowheads ,mirrors due to its use on white surface ,gongs etc.This term later transferred to Antimony sulfide an ore which efforescences out of earth in shape of jagged bars and is poisonous.This ore was easy to smelt since melting point is 630 degree C for Antimony .It is excellent for casting since it expands on cooling.Aalbiruni reports the export of Lead-antimony and copper –Antimony amulets ,hair-tweezers and small items to India from Afghanisthan.The white German silver which is very beautiful was loved by the west.The west depended upon India and China for this until 18th century ,because they did not know its composition until then.Haft-Josh as the name suggests was aseven-metal alloy consisting of gold,silver,copper,tin,iron,lead,zinc and had religious and magical value.Used for making amulets,other icons etc.This belief was existent in India and transferred from here to Persia .The Sanskrit name of Ashtadhathu (gold,silver,copper,tin,iron,lead,zinc,and mercury )has mercury which is the most auspicious and added as amalgam to gold.The Haft-josh is sapthadhaathu.Ashtadhathu is expensive .Panchadhathu (panchaloha)were used for making idols in temples of India and they are still smuggled by the west as rare valuable curiosities.
Use of metals in making of colours and inks is seen in the term sim-i-suktha(burnt silver)which contain silver,bronze,lead.It has a black lusture used in calligraphy and painting .The Aswad is made from gold,silver ,lead and sulphur used for filling the traceries of metalware.The 14th century traveler Shahabuddin al Umari wrote:-I know that for 3000 years India has not exported gold and what has been brought there from abroad has not gone out.The merchants bring gold to India from entire world,and take in exchange the aromatics,herbs,gums.Burnier in 17th century wrote :I have shown that the precious metals must abound in Hindustan although the country is devoid of mines.Gold came from river basins,from Himalaya and from Burma(SuvarnaBhoomi)and Mysore and silver is ubiquitous and made from anywhere by alchemy and purification.Gold coins of India were 99 % pure while silver coins were 97 % pure (Hodivala.studies in Mughal numismatics)
The purification and assay was systematic and most comprehensive.Reclamation and separation of gold,silver,copper ,lead from ashes after initial smelting of gold ore was scientifically done.Initial smelting was simple ,consisting of heating of gold between layers of saltpeter and brickdust and cowdung.By this impurities are absorbed in brickdust and cowdung.After 18 such fires the gold becomes pure.The ash obtained by the process is called Khak-i-Khalis in Persian and Saloni in Hindi.This was subjected to elaborate reclamation process again.
Saloni is handed over to a Niyariya ,who first sprinkles it over on still surface of water in a vessel.The heavier particles of gold settle down at bottom of vessel and thus collected.The remaining ash now called Kukrah is rubbed with Merury so as to cause gold inside the ash to form an amalgam which on distillation would lead to an easy evaporation of Mercury (boiling point 357 degree C)and separation of remaining gold.
The rest of ash mixed with lead powder called Punhar.Punhar was made by heating lead in presence of carbon ash until it melts.The coals removed,bellows inlets closed ,lead allowed to cool in absence of oxygen.This lead to formation of lead granules absorbed in ash.This mixture is punhar.The punhar mixed with a mild acid called Raasi (made from sajji or potassium hydroxide KOH and saltpeter as a reaction between the two give nitric acid).
KOH+KNO3……….K2O +HNO3
Punhar and Raasi are kneaded into homogenous soft mass ,rolled in balls weighing 2 seers each.The balls dried and in final count contained lead,nitric acid,and the remains of gold ,silver,lead and copper.The balls broken and dropped into furnace of ingenious design.It consists of clay vessel very much like a grain storage jar ,narrow at extremities and wide around middle.The vessel was 1 ½ yards (4.5 ft)high,positioned over an ash –lined pit into which metals will drop.There were inlets for bellows.This is a proto-blast furnace to be packed with ignited charcoal and subjected to sizeable draught of air.On dropping the ash balls into furnace ,lead was reduced and was the first to fall into pit ,and was thus separated from gold-silver-copper alloy called Bugravati and other impurities being more reactive being blown away as oxides.The remaining alloy of gold,silver,copper was processed as follows:
Pit dug in ground ,filled with equal amount of moist babul-wood ash shaped into a dish.The bugarvati placed in pit over which charcoal is ignited till the alloys become molten after which they are removed and replaced by Babulwood and heated once again.The copper along with traces of lead,was absorbed by ashes leaving silver and gold in an alloy form.
To separate the last two metals gold and silver it is melted 6 times,thrice with sulpher and then thrice with copper.For every Tola of alloy ,one masha of copper (ratio 12:1)and 2 masha ,2 surkh of sulphur (ratio 5:1 approx).Sulphur used in 3 potions.First half the total amount of sulphur mixed and melted with gold silver alloy and tehn the other half divided into two equal portions and used as above.After first melting with sulphur,entire alloy poured into vessel containing cold water through a meshing of Khas roots.This caused the alloy to break up into smallglobules and is an interesting example of modern technique .The beadingtechnique involves formation of many small beads so that a larger surface area is exposed for more efficient reaction and was quite effectively used at this stage.(How can we say that people who did such elaborated purification and assay techniques were not aware of the theory behind such experiments?)
Thus the alloy melted 3 times with sulphur and 3 times with copper and allowed to cool.After final cooling a white ash appeared on surface of mass.This ash was a form of silver which was purified by heating in a bone-ash crucible the reactions being:-
Ag+S ……..AgS
AgS+Cu……CuS+Ag(White ash)
The remaining mass containing gold is called Kail in Punjab ,Pinjar in Delhi .The gold is of inferior quality and minimal in the procedure(10 carat).It is subjected to another process called the Aloni.Make an oxygenrich paste of 2 parts cowdung and one part saltpeter which is rubbed on surface of crude gold(pinjar)ingots (already smeared with sesame oil).On heating these ingots a considerable degree of purity obtained.Even the ash from the process is not discarded and is treated with borax (tangar)and natural sodium carbonate (natrum)kneaded into balls and thrown intofurnace .Lead mixed with silver collected in pit below.The silver was separated by standard procedure and lead used to prepare the punhar for the earlier stage of reclamation process described.Processes for further purification of gold wire using cowdung ,rocksalt and washings with limejuice were known.
These superior technology were known and practiced by people of India right from Harappan /Indus valley period .But the common man of India were having day to day use of iron,copper,lead,zinc ,tin processing for daily use .Gold and silver was the luxury items of royalty and women of rich people.But the other metals were used by all.Thus there was always a demand within society and outside (export)from BC 5000 onwards for Indian craftsmen and their produce.Only from 16th to 18th century we find India depending upon imports of materials from Europe and elsewhere.The reason was mainly sociopolitical rather than lack of expertise or raw materials or manpower.The alchemists of India making gold out of base metals was a wonder for the Greeks and the Romans and before them to the medieval world merchants of Egypt,Persia etc.But it was not transmutation of base metals to gold,and was purification techniques by which the gold contained in base metal alloya was separated and used again.This the intelligentia of the west failed to see and gave it a superhuman mythical exotic character.The science was given the halo of mythology by west ,because they didn’t understand the process in the beginning .
Because this superior technology of mettullurgy,chemistry and physics had been welldeveloped and made into practical use by Indians.The only improvements that had to be done by the western science had been over and above the shoulders of these simple craftsmen/scientists of rural and urban India and that they did effectively and we have our modern science .We should be able to appreciate the continuity of science ,its ideas and technologies improved upon by each successive generation of human beings right from the first human being upto the modern homosapiens of 21st century.Then the space-time continuum will have a proper place for each civilization,each nation,each culture and there is no need to quarrel over anything.Peace will prevail only if we are able to cognize the equality of human brain everywhere ,east or west,north or south from time immemorial .