Indian economy in BC 320 Part 1

Agriculture during Koutilya’s Arthasasthra(BC 321-298)

Vidya include four varieties.Anwikshiki,Thrayi,Vartha and Dandaneethi.For disciples of Manu Anwikshiki being a branch of Thrayi there are only three types of vidya –Thrayi,Vartha nad Danda.For disciples of Brihaspathi there are only two vidya –Vartha and Dandaneethi.For them Thrayi is a protection for those who know the journey through life.For disciples of Sukra only Dandaneethi exists .Koutilya accepts four as vidya and they are for knowing dharma and artha.
Anywikshiki:-Samkhyam,yogam and Lokayatham.
Thrayi :-dharma and adharma and their knowledge.(The three veda saama,rk,yajus).The Atharva and Ithihasa and the vedanga also come under it.Thrayi is for all the four varna and four ashrama to protect swadharma.
Swadharma of Brahman:-learning,teaching,yajna,giving or daana,prathigraha.
That of Kshathriya:living with knowledge of weapons and instruments,protection of life.learning,yajna,daana
That of Vaisya:-learning,yajna,daana,krishi,goraksha,and vaanijya.
Of soodra:-Service jobs,vartha or message and news,sculpture and arts,kuseelavakarma (dance ,music)
Vartha:-artham and Anartham
Dandam:Nayam and apanayam .
Anwikshiki examines all these and their strength and weakness by logic and thus by enquiry decides which is best for the world.It keeps intellect not wavering in pain and pleasure and increaseefficiency in pragna,vaak,and karma .

What is Vaartha or Vaartika?
Vartha is krishi,goraksha and vanijya which means the dharma of vaisya and sudra overlap.It gives grains,cattle,gold,tax ,gifts etc and by that treasury is filled and king is able to carry out protection of his people.
After cholakarma(cutting of hairs .It is from choula the word Chola originated).all children learn lipi(writing)and Samkhyana(numbers).After upanayana children learn from qualified teachers Thrayi and Anwikshiki,from the various Adhyaksha they learn Vaartha,and from teachers of practical knowledge of law dandaneethi.After 16th year (Brahmacharya)do Godaana and take to grihastha life.
In the past when people were troubled by Matsyanyaya(large fish devouvouring small one)a law was made and VaivaswathaManu was made emperor and it was decided that all should give 1/6th of grain and 1/10 of other produce and gold to him.With that the king has to live and protect all people .Even the forest tribes(Aranayka)give 1/6th of their Uncha grain(which is not cultivated but gathered from forest wild grains) for protection.
Sons of the king have to live from gifts of gold he gets,or by making artificial gold or jewellery,or by trading with silver and gold or by taking the wealth coming in ships etc.He can take the job of a Kaaru,silpi,kuseelava or a vaidya or of a vagmi,pashanda etc and live by that .
Division of the day and night:-
Dividing day by shadow Into eight .The shadow length of three persons is Thripourushi.If it is one person long it is pourushi,and only 4 finger long it is chathurangula and no shadow is noon The same repeats in reverse order for noon to sunset.
In first 1/8th part or thripourushi do means of protection and hear about the expenditure and the gains.2nd 1/8th part of pourushi hear and look after the citizens matters.3rd 1/8th chathurangula is for bath and food.Also for swadhyaya.The 4th 1/8th take the gold obtained and employ various Adhyaksha in duties.5th 1/8th is again chathurangula and have discussions with the ministers in a sabha and get news from the intelligentia or gupthachara.6th 1/8th is for free plays or personal affairs or for manthra.7th 1/8th is for examining elephants,horses,chariots,and army .the 8th 1/8th is for discussion with commander in chief about defence or battles etc.Then sandhya come and do sandhyavandan.

The night is similarly divided by using a Nazhikavatta.
1st 1/8th part of night for talking with goodapurusha.2nd 1/8th for bath and eating and swadhyaya.3rd 1/8th for hearing instrumental and vocal music and 4th and 5th 1/8ths are for sleep.6th 1/8th to awaken with music and instruments and to think of sasthra and that days duties.7th 1/8th for seeing goodapurusha and manthralochana.8th 1/8th for swasthyayana with rithwiks ,Guru,Purohitha,doctors ,chief cook ,astrologer etc and to see the dhenu with its clf and a Rishabha andto circumambulate them and then go to the durbar.Thus the day to day activity is fixed systematically .
How does a king make a new janapada or a dwelling place of people?
By bringing people from neighbouring areas or by taking excess population from his own land ,king can recreate a new janapada where it existed once ,or where there is no janapada.The majority of people should be farmers there and of service section farmers and it should be minimum 100 and maximum 500 family strength (The anjoottuvar)and from 1-to 2 krosam in extant and with ample protection in the limits.At the limits of villages a river,mountain,forest,deep pits,great lakes,a special tree or stone are determined as limit.
In the middle of 10 village is a samgrahanam.
In center of 200 grama is a Kharvatikam.
In center of 400 villages is a Dronamukham.And in center of 800 Grama is the Sthaaneeyam or main capital and all these should be well connected .T the limits of janapada there should be forts with protection or Kaappu(kaaval)and which open tonearby villages.The intervals of these are protected by Vaagurika(those who make nets/fishing tribes)sabara,pulinda ,chandala or the vanavaasi as the case may be.
For Rithwik,purohitha ,Guru,Srothriya land is given as Brahmadeya without tax.Give lands for Adhyaksha,Samkhyayaka (accountants),Gopan(chief of 0 tharavad or 5 grama)Sthanikan(the chief of 1/4th of the country)aneekastha(trainer of elephant army)chikitsaka(doctor)Asawadamaka(the trainer of war horses)jamghakarikan(one who runs with messages urgently)etc land without right for sale or giving to others .They can use it for their uses but have no right of krayavikraya.
For taxpayers the lands are own for Ekapurushika time (till one persons death) and if the successor is ready to do agriculture and improve upon it ,it is again given to the same family .If a land that was not cultivated is made cultivable ,that person should not be evicted from the land.The lands left uncultivated can be taken and given to people who are ready to cultivate.Or they can give that for the servants of the village or Vaidehaka(traders)for cultivation .Those who do not do farming should give a tax for leaving land fruitless.King has to give grains as seeds,cattle,and gold as loan to help start a agricultural operation.And give the people chance to repay back without any trouble .In natural calamity without affecting treasury king should give the people relief.King has to protect the people as a father.
It is duty of king to make the city limits protections,forests of dravya,forests of elephants,grazing grounds for cattle,the trade routes for commerce,the transport by water and land,markets and sathra etc.He has to provide a lake or chira with either sahodaka(rainwater storage)or aharyodaka(water stored artificially by canals of irrigation ).The entire village gives land,way,wood,other instruments and service for such construction work.The fish,birds,plants in the lake belongs to king as representative of God.
In the country there should not be any sanyasin except a vanaprastha who has done all his grihastha and citizen duties.No sangha or group should exist except the entire gramasabha which is for the common good of entire village and act as a co-operative unit and as a guild .Except at prescribed times and period sof festivals people who have duties should not waste time in hobbies etc.Only if people are interested in agriculture the treasury ,granary,wealth ,grains and fruits and its essences will increase and people will be healthy and happy.
The lands which are not usable for agriculture can be converted into grazing grounds for cattle.The Brahmaranya(for veda and its learning) for Brahmins,and Somaranya(for having plants for somayaga)thapovana (for thapaswins),a mrigavana or Rajavihara for the king are the forests to be protected .At the limits of land a sarvaathithimrigavana (forests for all types of plants and animals and having great biodiversity)should be protected.
If there is a need a monoculture forest for each wood can be cultivated also.There should be officers to protect them.Hasthivanam need special protection and the one who kills an elephant is to be given death penalty .The elephant that dies naturally is property of king and its horn and nails belongs to king for trade or commerce.
The best elephants are seen in Kalinga,Anga,Chedi,Prachi,Karushakam.The intermediate types in Dasarnam,Aparantham,and the last (lowest grade)in Sourashtram and Panchanadam .
According to classification of Durga Kerala is having Anthardeepa,Nimlavarudha,Oudakadurga(or jaladurga)and with mountains and hills Parvathadurga.It also is a Vanadurga with lot of water ,Cheru(or dirt) which is described as Khanjanodakam,and sthambagahanam (with several trees growing).Being a nadidurga,jaladurga and parvathadurga it is a protected space for people and no one from exterior can enter it easily.The vanadurga status is protective for people of the forests.And it is a special hiding place for all and gives a space for hidden guerilla warfare .
Sthaneeyadurga is always in a place where tributaries of rivers meet with a deep watery source which will never dry up,a lake etc and it should be in circle,square etc with water flowing all around (as Valabhi)and easy to bring things for trade and commerce and for food in emergency .Both land and water routes should have approach to it.It should have three royal paths from east to west and three from north to south.
For each family aound dwelling place flowering gardens,fruit gardens,trees without fruits or flowers and fields of grains should be cultivated by them and the produce from them stored and shared.For each 10 families at least one well should be there for water supply.
Each durgam should store in the granary materials neded for several years like:-ghee,oil,grains,salts,alkaline things,medical plants ,dry meat,ground grains,dry fruits ,nuts,grass,wood ,metals,skins and leather,coal,fibres,stones,bamboo,valkalam as dress,the pith of trees,weapons,coverings,etc .Take the old ones for use and replace them with new ones so that there is always stock for an emergency.

Duties of a Samahartha:-
He is a supervisor of several departments of economical and financial importance and has to give information to his superior officer and he will give it in turn to the king.The samahartha has to look after the Karanneyam,sidham and sesham ,Aayam and Vyayam and Neevi of a number of departments like the Durgam,Rashtram,Khani,Sethu,vanam,vrajam,Aayasreeram,Aayamukham,vyayasareeram,kaalam.

Karaneeyam :- Includes how much is to be collected ,from which desam is that to be collected,Determining its paths of transport and trade ,the actual collection methods,the total of all such collected wealth and articles,and the details of that.
Sidham:- Includes things deposited by people and chieftains in the treasury,and that which is collected by king directly from them, expenditure therefrom in the place itself,that which was balance to be collected in the previous year,that which was given by king as taxfree by deed,and by word of king,.
Sesham:- the total loan amounts to be obtained,the amount after expenditure for maintainance of army ,that which was not given to king by help of the officials partiality,that which was not given by the principal or main kudi(villages),that which does not give returns ,that which has more expenditure and less gains .
Aayam:- That gain which repeats every day,that which repeats annually,and that which was under jurisprudence of previous Adhyaksha ,the fines ,increased tax in special circumstances,the sum given as relief for loss,that which was received from the enemy during wartime,that which came due to lack of heirs,treasures ,balance after a construction work,that which was not expended though allotted for a special cause,the gain after trade of things,amount obtained with sale of things which should not be sold,the amount which is obtained than the expected measures,the competitive unexpected increase in gain .
Vyayam:-daily expenditure,expenditure in a week,in a month,and annual expenditure.
Neevi:-From what was present earlier deduce both gain and loss and the balance is neevi.That is of two types .The expected and the actually gained/lost.

These are generally said .And of the departments in each of which he has to supervise these:-
1.Durgam.:- sulkam or amount of tax for products ,fine for frauds,the weightand measures,the tax collected by officers at the towns,by the superintends of lakshana(in a numismatic mine),mudradhyaksha (for getting sign or symbol of entry from king),suradhyaksha (the supervisor for alcoholic drinks),for oil,flowers,for suthra,for ghee,alkaline things,for gold,for a market and shop,for a prostitution institution,for gambling,for construction,for the groups of kaarusilpi guilds (Karu does gross work and silpi does subtle work )and devathadhyaksha ,and at the door of city from external people to enter it.

Rashtram:- Sitha(for ploughing)for tax on produce of lands,bali or voluntary deposits by honest men of th eking,tax for trade , by the supervisor of waterways and landways,ship tax and boat tax,for small and big towns,markets,for bounding a thief what the villagers give to king.
Khani :-Means mine.gold,silver,diamond,jewels,pearls,corals,conches,metals,salts,elements of earth,elements of water and rasa etc
Sethu”:- Pushpavadam (flower gardens) fruit gardens,gardens (Shandam )with no fruits,fields of grains and other vegetables,the gardens for roots
Vanam:- for gavaya and cattle,for animals ,for dravya,for elephants etc.
Vrajam:-the village with cattle,buffalo,goats,small type goats,camel,horse,mules,is a vrajam
Aayasareeram:- the land and sea and river routes for trade and commerce
Aayamukham:- the gains at ports like the value ,part reserved for king,the competitive gains,the salary,the fixed tax,the increased tax ,the fines
Vyayasareeram:- fo rdevapooja,pithrupooja,for giving alms,for swasthivachana,for expenditure of women and children in Antha:pura,in kitchen,for messengers,for the granary,for weapons,for market maintaianance ,for storage of the articles for trade,for expenditure on agriculture,for keeping a army ,for expenditure on cattle,and forest maintainance and grazing grounds etc.
Kaalam:- Rajavarsha or the number of years when a new king started the reign to assess the improvement or loss ,months,paksha,day,seasons and things available in each season,poorna and adhimasa .
Thus what the samahartha looks after is the entire economical condition of the area under his jurisdiction and it is a comprehensive function which our present collectors or ministers would find difficult to learn and control with efficiency.

Role of an Akshapatalaadhyaksa:- He has to make an akshapatala with subdivisions up and below and record all the accounts on such a graphical way and that is statistical work of high order which was maintained even in the time of Chanakya .Th eaccountant keeps all the accounts in writing and with statistics for the future use .What are the things he has to write in a nibandhapusthaka ( law book)? And how is it kept?There should be fixed place for each nibandhapusthaka.And ther should be fixed place for each adhyaksha and his accountants to sit and work .(Called Upasthaana ).They record:-

1.The number of Adhikarana where each dravya is seen and where it originated
2.The prachara (place where it is collected)in each adhikarana.
3.Sanjatha (the amount to be collected or expected from each)
4.In dravyaprayoga ,their growth,loss,expenditure ,origin,associations ,place,salary,adding of impurities by traders,and their pramana.
5.About jewels,diamonds and valuable things of trade their value,qualities of colour etc,weights and measures,value for each measure and the jewellery
6.About grama,kula,jathy,samghataha etc their dharma, vyavahara,charithra or history,samsthaana(how to preserve their place of antiquity),and their present status.
7.About royal servants their customs,duties,place of origin,and salary,their taxfree wealth if any,the rice given to them for daily food,
8.About king ,queen and their children:- Their jewellery,their lands,their special expenditures,the things to be given in special occasions,their expenditure for health matters,
9.For the friendly king:- The wealth as gift to be given by the treaty of friendship
10.In the case of enemy king when won over in war how much gift and wealth was decided to be given and how much was actually given etc.
It is from this the karaneeyam,sidham,sesham,aayam,vyayam,neevi,upasthanam (time of examination of each ),and place of collection,charithram and custom,and the past state and the present state are recorded into a book and kept.
For a professional year there are only 354 days and 12 days are holidays for royal servants.Each adhyaksha has several assistants of service class who are honest people.The official groups reach their respective Akshapatala in the month of Ashada.They come with the sealed grantha groups and the neevi (balance sheet) and remain in the place of account keeping without going out and keeping perfect silence and concentration.Hear the gain and loss and decide the tax to be collected and collect it then and there.If an adhyaksha fails in his duty he has to pay fine.Similarly for accountant also there is fine if he does not turn up when th eadhyaksha has fixed a date for inspection.The calculations of people ,of accountants and of adhyakaha are compared by the impartial Mahamathra Brahmanas and tell the king the details when all are present.The one who has done any fraud will be given a fine .

Economy of the nation:-
The growth of production (pracharasamridhi)of a nation depends on the charithranugraha(protection of past historical dharma and blessings therefrom),choranigraham( lack of thiefs),yukthaprathisheda(lack of corruption among the adhyaksha and officials),sasyasampathi(more produce from plants /agricultural products,Vanijyavridhi (increase in trade and commerce of such produce),lack of debts,the tax which was avoided due to certain circumstances being given back when a good time comes (voluntarily by people /or by force by king),the gifts from other kings and rich men and traders to kings .These increase the amount in the kings treasury.

Corruption,lack of honestyand truth among citizens.evading tax,extra loss by luxurious expenditure by people,lack of production and lack of industriousness leads to loss and treasury is weakened.If an official does corruption the people have freedom to tell that in public in their sabha and samithy so that fine can be taken from such officials.Before giving post of a responsible official or minister they have to undergo severe tests of honesty by people and the king .Not only of the knowledge of that particular field of activity but of honesty,dharma and of goal of common welfare.
The election was thus not just on majority votes on which corruption is possible in the present set up.A saasanam means a order that is written or recorded (lekhyartham)and for writing an order a person who is well qualified is selected.Vachika sasana is order by word and pathraka is by writing and among this patharaka alone deserves as a record .They are pragnaapana(vignaapana),Agna ,paridaana(or prasasthi with praise )parihara(when king or rich person give a land or wealth to temple/town/garma/or to some special kula/race etc )nisrushty(which gives representation through another person),pravrithikam(description of pravrithy or functions of divine,human types factually happened as a historical account),prathilekham(after studying the lekham writing a fit reply),sarvathragalekham(which is written by emperor or king for all to do protection for all written to all chieftains and Lords and subordinates )
Of the 10 types of pearls Chanakya describe 6 are from Kerala and west coast .(Kerala especially from malayaparvatha and its rivers) and one from Pataliputhra and one from Himalaya ,.They are Pandyakavataka,Tamraparnika,Kouleyam,Chourneyam,Mahendram,Pasikyam ,Haimavatham etc. The emeralds called Koutam and Maleyakam are from Kerala.
16 types of sandalwood are described of which three belong to Kaamaroopa(Assam)and the rest to Malayaparvatha (again Kerala /Karnataka).About Karpaasa he says the best are from Madhura,Konkana(Aparantha),Kalinga,Kasi,Vanga,Valsa or Kousambi,Mahishmathy the palace of Kunthala or Karnatakadesa.