Sunday, February 7, 2010

changing perspectives on education in India

Changing perspectives on education in India

There are several definitions on education.This(which Chiropractice have given) is only one among them.We will consider here three terms .
1 Growth.Education is a powerful tool in growth and progress of a person and through him/her the society/nation/world is important.Growth is not the physical growth alone,but mental,intellectual,spiritual –a total personality development for human resource development of entire humanity.The total healthydevelopment of such an individual gives a dynamics to entire world.All facets of life of person and society are enriched by the overall development and growth-that is intra and interpersonal successful relationships,bonds,alone with success in professional,sociopolitical,economical,artistic,scientific fields of entire humanity happen through the contribution of a welleducated developed mature human being.Such a person is an ornament to society and to world.(I can quote Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi as a jewel of India in this context).
The question is does our present day curriculum provide such a development to people? Does it allow total personality growth or just remain something for getting a job,and making money by the easiest methods?And does all the educated people come out as committed citizens of society and of humanity? If not,the aim of education is not yet fulfilled and one has to find out alternatives for achievement of this goal of education.

Growth is definitely a goal of education.But it should not be uncontrolled growth of one cell(person) or a clone of cells over others(pathological) but a physiological natural growth of all cells according to needs of the entire body (physiological) and this similie from medical language distinguishes normal and abnormal growths .The growth of one person should assist in growth of entire society,nation,world and only then the growth is natural and valuable and perfect .Education envisages such growth.

2.The term formal.Formal means as an adjective correct,serious,and conforming to accepted conventions.Or an official ,publicly currently recognized method.(which need not be correct or may be correct-either ways can happen).As an adverb formally means a legally approved,or official ,prescribed procedure through regular formal chaanels like schools,colleges,universities etc.This is decided by a Governmental agency in power .

But human education is not only formal but informal training and growth is a process ,due to informal education (or partially due to it)is an accepted fact by all educators,teachers,parents,and students (by all people alike).Therefore that term is slowly being replaced by educationists for a better definition.Most of them now include both formal and informal learning in education.
3 The term empirical.Developed as philosophy of Roger Bacon mingled with St Augustinian tradition ,by about 13th century in Oxford .But in 13th century the Oxford teachers came for education to Bologna and Paris ,the important centers of Christendom ,and return to Oxford and taught the spirit and idea of Paris papal court.And even those who never went to Paris ,and who learned in Oxford were under the influence of this Parisian influence .This intellectual supremacy and authority of a single orthodox tradition over international intellectualism is personified in Empiricism.
Indian educationists (Changing perspectives in Education Ed Denis Coelho .Indian Social institute of New Delhi 1995) in a seminar conducted in Tamil nad, noticed that every one is trying to define education on subjective objectives/aims and spelt out that the true education has some aims which allow both individuals as well as nations to which they belong,and through them the entire world has to become strong and mature and self-reliant .

The value-based education has to be a human-oriented,universally acceptable one for progress of human race as a whole and on a eco-friendly basis .For this an integrated curriculum –oriented formal as well informal awareness is needed .This is the Grand unification of entire cosmos ,sciences,arts,humanity and other life forms,nature in its ecological multidiversity .This is the value based education for entire human race .
In the introduction to the above mentioned book it is rightly said that Education goes beyond ,academic excellance ,cognitive growth and aims at human growth which calls for involvement of the whole person ,mind,heart,and will in learning process .HRD aptly sums up higher aims of education.It should initiate a social change for betterment of humanity and nations.Brazilien Paulo Friere said learning is to critically analyse and deepen self-perception leading to conscience building.Mode of learning is a dialogue,in which love,humility,hope,and faith prevail.This is called the process of liberation by Freire.We are in this world ,to transform,rather than to adapt ourselves to it.For Gandhi also the education was not just a system nmaintainance but system change.Whole life and practice is needed for that type of valuebased,valuebuilding education.Education is that which allow a person to manage entire life ,survive problems and crisis,and in that experience and problem solving and survival,be productive and helpful to entire nation and humanity and nature.There is no limitations for such an education and ability to respond to whole of life and nature in a positive way.It is an integral life partnership with environment in which we are placed as dynamic organisms.The eco-friendly education alone can save the world .Thus total literacy is not just reading and writing ability,but it includes the ability and growth to decide sociopolitically what we need and how we can achieve it.To prepare for such a education ,the formal ,empericist ,authoritative and moneymaking- oriented ,job and degree oriented education alone is not enough .This understanding has lead to the discourses of alternative methods like integrated curriculums,value-based education etc.
I had been a teacher for medical students (undergraduates/postgraduates)and have seen the problems of education that lead to social evils .And how to diminish them and give a positive impetus to my profession (Medical science)and the Medical teaching curriculum ,and thus improve the human life had lead to the value-based education I am advocating.
This does not negate the formal studies.But supplement it with informal value-based integrated learning so that each human being is useful to him/herself,to family,society,nation and world .This is a goal which I have devised from my own experiences in life,personal and professional and as a social and philosophical thinker .This is not a theoretical discussion .But a practical method which if implementd would lead to a visible positive change in society.But ,as said earlier,only if one has political powers and decision-making powers one can implement such plans in a formal curriculum .

Dr Malcolm S.Adiseshiah has given the following headings to his chapter on Philosophy of education :-
1.Education is holistic
2.Education is learning
3.Education is work
4.Education is a dialogue
5.Education is service
6.Education is character building.
And in fact education is all these and beyond.
Thomas V.Kunnunkal is concerned with education as nation building.He mentions four goals –all interlinked as a composite goal.
1.Education for Integral personal development
2.For national development
3.For community
4.For culture and values.Kothari commission(National commission on Education 1964-66)had introduced social dimension to objective of education.The title of its report itself is Education and national development.1986 National education policy envisages education that promote national cohesion,scientific temper,independence of mind and spirit,goals of socialism,secularism and democracy –fundamental to allround development ,material and spiritual.National selfreliance can only be attained by such growth.
The question again is have we reached that ?If not,why?Have we become a highly productive,selfsufficient nation,humane,caring for others, a modern nation,a united India ?If not ,is our formal classroom education satisfactory?Have our formal education failed to infuse the enlightened citizenship ideals and values in our people ?If so is it not necessary to change the definitions and the methods?And what alternative suggestions ,we as educated and experienced citizens of this land and of this earth(as members of human race)can contribute for that ?It is this constant reflection and experiences and experiments that had given rise to these ideas of mine.
For transformation of mindsets ,our Governments started decentralization programmes as part of NEP .But ,each decentralized part is showing separatist tendencies and showing that they are not yet mature enough to be responsible citizens of a democratic nation .Only if this state level decentralization is successfully undertaken,the second and third levels(district/local Panchayath levels) can be successful.But a simultaneous decentralization from local Panjayath levels will be better undertaken with the state decentralization so that the low and high levels can meet at middle levels.This majr area of action also has been slowly being implemented.
What should be included in a value based curriculum?Can any one say that what he/she thinks as value is acceptable to all?No.But there are universal values .Justice,equality,freedom,fraternity ,unity beyond all differences of caste/creed/sex/sociopolitical class etc,truth and nonviolence,honesty .
This modern,Indian,Humane values are also the most ancient ,global and ecological values .This if any institution/person accepts and puts to practice one can accept.Otherwise not.

Human resource development involves Relationship of a person to oneself and to society.Whether I am an asset or liability to myself and to society depends upon the development of my skills ,abilities,my ideas,my virtues,values and my practical life.Without such values a nation cannot build up its valuable HR .Therefore ,it is not mere reading and writing ability but ability to analyse and cognize the present situations,ability to change them for betterment of entire humanity which distinguishes a person from others.For this knowledge of past is needed.History is for that purpose.If education(formal) has failed in this respect,we have to seriously think of its causes and make a change for the betterment of our society.Without values ,if we produce moneymaking luxury loving machines with academic titles of doctors and engineers and IT professionals ,does our nation improve?If we produce them with all the academic excellence +values would not that be ideal for us ?
In the integral pedagogical paradigm Louis Xavier regards PROCESS of education as a cultural TRANSMISSION from generation to generation.It is accumulated wisdom transmitted through ages by humanity.The academic excellance is replaced by human excellance in valuebased approach (which also includes academic excellance).Academic excellance do not include human excellance,but humanexcellance includes academic excellance as well.In the pedagogical framework are 5 steps.Context,Experience,Reflection,Action,Evaluation.
1.Context of learner.The life situation from which the learner comes.How they have affected /influenced him/her
2.Experience.Beyond the intellectual grasp education ,has ability of using imagination ,feelings etc .
3.Reflection:- Thoughtful reconsideration of a subject matter ,experience ,idea,purpose of spontaneous reaction to grasp its significance fully .Memory,imagination,feelings,cognition are used in this step by us.
4.Action
That which makes the learner decide that this is my point of reference on which I wil act .The interiorized choices become externally manifested in our actions .Our actions show our convictions .Practical use of our values are manifested only when we act in a certain manner.
5.Evaluation.Effective feedback make us explore further ,and find out alternative methods/solutions for the accepted /formal current ones .Every teacher/learner/educationisthave experience of all these steps in their process of education.
The evaluation and further growth ,by reexamination of whatever had happened ,and reflection on it leading to improved actions has an effective cyclical pattern .

The only problem in implementing this is when educational institutions adopt fragmented approaches ,narrow specializations, sidestep the central concern for the human person/personality development as a whole .When values are neglected and a child/person is subjected to education just for the sake of formal training to be a specialized professional (with no commitment to values/nation/world)this happen.We have witnessed this already .
A spiritual version of world over materialism
Concern for others over selfish egoisms
Simplicity in face of consumerism
Cause of justice in face of social injustice
These are the ideals /values which teachers and students of modern world need to inculcate in a valuebased education for positive change in society and world .
For this we need
1.A unifying vision .(A grand unification theory or Mahaa advaitha as I call it)
2.Enrichment of dynamics of pedagogy by insight gained from contemporary educational psychology (which one gains from practical experience as well as from books on the subjects and compare both)
3.Development of a wide range of course materials for implementing this pedagogy.These are to be viewed as models to facilitate a teaching-learning process.
4.Staff development programmes involving in-service traing .Training the trainers programmes .
5.Exchange of expertise and experience among people who practice this .This open exchange will develop and let the discipline grow .
Thus education(life long including informal and formal) leads to generation of a new society which believes in high values.This has not occurred with the current method of education we are following as Dr William Madtha points out in his article.He writes:-Lust for money ,awards and sex at the cost of values has become the fashion of the day ,even among academicians.The corruption and misuse of finances by administration is also pointed out by him as a result of this .He points out how the Nishkaamakarma (selfless service)can make individuals mature and capable of assuming their responsibilities.Only such a qualitative education which inculcate this can restructure society .
He mentions that core curriculum has to be designed so that it connects with life,viz,to promote national values such as Indian common cultural heritage ,egalitarianism,democracy,secularism ,equality of sexes,ecological sensitivity,freedom ,observance of family norms and scientific attitudes to life,that is spirit of enquiry,creativity,objectivity,courage to question,methodology and an aesthetic sensibility.National unity (Oneness )should be felt by all by such education.In restructuring institutions,in giving autonomy to institutions accompanied by their accountability and in selecting educators etc one has to exercise extreme care.
Educators with personal qualities,educational qualifications,and professional competence are needed .(pp 49 Education fro generating a new society).They will be assets to the institutions they work as well as to the nations they serve.Instead of that electing people who have educational qualifications but no values will do harm to institutions as well as nations.State incentives for accountability of teachers and educators will increase their performance .Sociopolitical awareness is needed in a democracy to succeed.Without allowing free expression of such ideals at local levels ,and without giving awareness of its importance at all levels no educational system is complete .that is why adult education and continuing education are important.
Jesudasan (a Gandhian studies expert)gives the importance of Gandhi as an educator .He observes that his analytical thinking was as radical as that of Marx but mor econstructive than Marx in search of solution for the whole problem.Both are social philosophers and activist reformers ,concerned with reconstruction of an ideal society.But methods were very dissimilar when it comes to gross alienation and violent reaction of labourer to exploitations(Marx)and subtle exploitation and method of nonviolent non-co-operation of the exploited.(Gandhi)As part of the social educational pedagogy to remedy the evil Gandhi tried to introduce at formal educational structural level ,productive and life-sustaining work experience as center of the whole learning process.Work is basic and central to education,not as an employment or money-generating activity ,but as sustaining life in the whole superstructure of society.This is more scientific than any other theories of education.But India did not experiment with this vision of our own educationist Gandhi ,but adopted the system of the Europian whitecollar job oriented system .Even with that we can start implementing te ideals of Gandhi-Simple living,high thinking,and equality of all and nishkaamakarma as service to all.

The importance of ecological education is not to be neglected.Nature is common property resource of us.Shared by all alike.Therefore it is heritage of all ,not only of humans but also of all living creatures.Therefore ,Think globally and act locally to conserve nature should be taught right from childhood to all human beings.And this cannot be done without awareness of our biodiversity,our traditional ways of conserving it and all these are learned from generations of oral tradition.Not from a formal classroom alone .Though each teacher can facilitate this way of learning by inculcating a desire to know more about our environment and how to protect it etc.Practice of a ecofriendly life right from beginning is inculcated in children by parents themselves and school teachers can augment it .Thus formal and informal education makes one grow and mature and become an asset to oneself,to ones family,society,nation and world .Though we have not visited all continents by thinking as a world citizen and acting at our own little sphere of activity(local environment)we can contribute and be a valuable citizen of world.This is the value-based education needed for every human being .
It integrates all the love,compassion,scientific temper and artistic talents ,cognition and imagination in one person for the sake of the entire living and nonliving world of existence.
This may seem a Utopian dream.But is not.It is a practical dream,for each one of us to internalize,enjoy ,practice in our life and be happy thereby making others also happy.

Saturday, February 6, 2010

Love ,Relationships,Harmony,citizenship and world peace

LOVE AND RELATIONSHIPS

Today is February 6th .Visakham star.Ashtami thithi .A vyazhavatta (12 years ) have passed silently but very fruitfully after my book on Krishna(Sandrananda )was released at Cochin.My relation with Krishna ,started at a stage of infancy has matured at the age of 64 .64 Years and 64 kalas /arts have been dedicated to Krishna in silent service.

Theodore Sizer remarked that it is better for one teacher to teach two subjects for 25 students,than teaching one subject to 50 students.The proportion if we take the Indus valley proportions of measurement will be like this:
Subjects No:of students
1 50 50
2 25 25
4 12.5 12-13
8 6.25 6-7
16 3.125 3-4
32 1.5625 1-2
64 0.78125 1

The more the years of contact between the two people ,the more will be the shared experiences and more will be the bondage .Thus a Gurukula with a Guru/shishya was considered a rare relationship where students learn from a loved,respected person everything needed for life and for posterity to remember.A great Guru could transfer all the knowledge of 64 arts and sciences to one great disciple who will bear the torch to next generation.In a village all children are taught same basics ,and the students with talent were able to pursue the enquiry further with experts in more famous centers where they lived with Guru .
Krishna,though an avathar had lived in a gurukula ,just like any other child of his age ,obeying all human laws .
Whether in a Guru/shishya or wife/husband relationship an intellectually emotional bond is essential for a lifelong romantic love and mutual respect.When we speak of a romantic love ,most people equate it with the infatuations the teen age children have with the opposite sex.That romantic feeling can have two types of course:
1.It fades away either due to familiarity or due to facts /trials and tribulations of life.
2.It matures into a longlasting deep friendship in which tinges of the vestiges of the old romantic feeling persists subtly leading to a sort of deep bliss or happiness to both partners in their relationship.
Intellectual examination of the romantic love gives us this everlasting friendship.There is a permanent commitment to friendship and love in this type of friendship.It is a beautiful experience which a human being cherishes forever.
In relationships it is the shared activities and interests that keep up a shared commitment.If a wife/husband has a commitment to the other’s professional commitments ,and understands them well naturally the relationship will strengthen .The continuance of mutual interest in actions and interests of the other helps eternal friendships possible between the two.There is interpersonal growth in both individuals which is visible to all .The Guru-Shishya are both visibly happy and blessed by the relationship and every onlooker feel the change in them.This is an ideal relationship.If such a relation happen in a marriage that is an ideal marriage (Ch 9 Interpersonal growth Part 2 Educating for personal life.pp 179-194 Happiness and education Nel Noddings).
The dramatic differences in habits,tastes ,personality and lifestyle of a couple(any two people) can lead to imperfections in that relationship.If the organic habits of two people are not aesthetically creating a harmonious whole how do wise people hide such imperfections in relationships?
They keep silence ,reserve to save such a imperfect ,yet necessary relationship as marriage etc.What the media is talking about hypocrisy in relationship is this silence for saving a relationship.I am not saying whether this is correct or not.But ,this is a fact .The lifelong marriages are saved not by the perfections in it,but by the mature,wise,silence ,reserve shownby one of the partners,either the male or the female.They try to forget and forgive or to make a cover for what is not there.

The ideal friendship which we are talking about is not that. The perfect relationship gives eternal happiness or bliss and is not a saved relationship by sacrifice of one of the parties.Both get bliss out of it.We know pleasure is different for different stages of our life.The concept change as we grow up from a child to a teenager upto the mature old age.The love that lasts till old age ,unconditionally ,without expecting anything from the other,yet in perfect harmony with the other is the true love.Perfect friendship is that of two people who have similar virtues,similar interests,value the friend for friendship itself and such a person with virtuous friendship will be friend of all.Like Krishna.The love and friendship not for any selfish motive but for love and friendship itself.They do not betray the faith of a friend.They enjoy in the happiness of the friend without any other thought or jealousy .
To be a good friend one has to know the friend thouroughly.To understand a friend we need contact with friends.The perfect friendship a Guru and shishya develop in a Gurukula is by this mutual relation.The perfect relation we expect from a marriage is such a mutual understanding.
Only a few get this perfect unconditional love.Those who get it are lucky,chosen ones.
They have romantic,aesthetic and intellectual friendship which keeps them eternally happy,blissful.
This is the true Bhakthy and ecstacy between Bhagavan and Bhaktha,between Guru and shishya and between twp lovers (Radha/Krishna or Shiva/Shakthy).
These interpersonal relationship has to come from each home .This will educate us how to conduct in public life.Teach us how to contribute to other people’s happiness.Our fulfillment as members of society,as citizens of our nation and of the world will come only by that .
The public life starts with our profession/occupation.The profession balances the distinctive capacity of an individual with his/her social service.What opportunity one gets to do that ,and how much one utilize that opportunity is what matters.Profession and choice of profession depends upon several factors and thus opportunity for helping others also is depending upon these factors.More than that,whatever profession is chosen,the help we offer depend upon our mental make up too.A person may make lot of money out of profession ,but may not contribute to society.On the other hand a person who had not made an economic success in life might contribute to society by service.So it is not economic success alone that counts for enlightened citizenship but a mental make up to do so.A person may be rich but his wife’s uxuries may be never ending and even if he wants to do social service he may not find enough to spare for such causes. Thus when the great pathologist William Osler said that “Medical profession is a noble profession for those who are noble”,he meant it for all professions.
If we contribute both interpersonally and intrapersonally and at our old age ,when we look back we have nothing to regret and we feel satisfaction we have been successful in our life.If we are complaining about our life,our opportunities,our friends and we are not satisfied with our ornaments,costly dresses and luxurious apartments and vehicles etc and of the fame and awards we received ,of the positions we had etc we have not matured gracefully.Both personal and professional life offer us with a variety of opportunities to serve all around us and what we have to do is to be aware of that blessing and utilize it .We will be happy individuals then.We will be friends of the entire world then.
A democracy can survive only on such values.The humanity needs such values for its survival.The entire globe needs a harmonious ecofriendly relationship like this ,respecting and loving all and cherishing all as blessings of the mother nature.
This is best exemplified by the physical,mental,intellectual and spiritual health through the medium of saamaveda ,the saama music of universal love and peace.

Friday, February 5, 2010

grand unification and integrated method using Music for education,world peace

A grand unified theory for a multicultural,integrated curriculum using music for world peace.

The music therapy and a curriculum of advaitha for world peace ,which I advocate,is based on the following :- I do admire Albert Einstein ,not for his contributions to science alone.But for the way he outgrew all the marginalisations he faced during his lifetime so that he emrged as the Person of the century in 2000 selected by Times magazine,as against Roosevelt and even our own Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.Why this special admiration for him ?


The example of Einstein who was born in a marginalized community of the time ,but came up in life with all those marginalisations should be our model,not of some feminist women(from Kerala itself,whom I do not want to name) who even after being famous and well acclaimed ,still goes on increasing the gaps in society by repeated complaints about the society,the loved ones, and the male-dominated power games.Even if the trials and tribulations exist,I would prefer to overcome them by my cheerful countenance at all odds and by my achievements ,rather than complaining forever against injustices as they have been doing .(real as well as imaginary!!)

This admiration of mine , is also applicable to personalities like Yesudas,who came up in life and profession,as a colossus ,against all odds in life.Apart from musical contributions,he has given a model of such rare courage and of a character of stability.It is not just a person’s fame,wealth or professional contributions,but also the life and the ideals in life which the next generations see and emulate and admire.Therefore,intellectual women like me admire men like Einstein and Jesudas,rather than the above mentioned women writers and activists .For me,the male/female divide is only a construct and intellectually in advaithic framework all Athman/Brahman/Souls are One .This practical advaitha or grand unification is applied in all my projects and ideas and in curricular plannings.
What is the aim of life and education?
Happiness is the aim of all human activities ,including learning.Happiness is dependent on contingencies like health,wealth,reputation,friendships,love etc.But ,for all these to have in a balanced way,humans need an intellect to think,and reason and do accordingly in a systematic way.This contemplative thought about the greatest bliss and the means to achieve it ,is thus the aim of life and education and whether our educational curriculum is giving this faculty of developing happiness becomes important for a educationist.This is the intellectualist position of all curriculums .In Indian education this was important as the Upanishads say all meemams(research or enquiries)are due to the Aananda (bliss/happiness)that one derives from it.Aristotle also believed that theoretical or contemplative thought and capacity for it is happiness.There the east and west philosophy meet.Happiness is not the subjective wellbeing(SWB)of contemporary psychology and it is not a temporary phase of happiness that one seeks.When one does not have wealth ,he/she feels wealth is needed for happiness.When health is lost ,then people say that health is the most needed for happiness.The fact is that all these contingencies can be achieved by a judicious systematic life and thoughtful logical way of conducting in the world and this is the valuebased education system which gives continuous happiness ,including food sufficiency , agroeconomy bringing in its turn a socioeconomical system where people have a healthy life.The here and hereafter are thus harmoniously blended in a valuebased education where science and spirituality have no difference..This is a platform where both atheists and God-believers can meet since atheists like Bertrand Russel and H.G.Wells were awed by the mysteries of universe just as any traditional spiritualist .The order of universe is something that harmonises all living things into a bond of comradeship ,and it does not include only labourers or any one community ,let alone humans alone.The birds,animals,and the smallest life form has a place on this orderly universe and its oneness with the inanimate world is science as well as spirituality.Thus entire chara and achara worlds (moving and nonmoving ) are one in the thinking mind of a person who has come to the classroom of my valuebased education system.There we have to find a meaning of all meanings.Happiness is not just absence of pain as Stuart Mill wrote,just as health is not merely absence of disease.
Hume said celibacy,fasting,penance,self-denial,humility ,silence and solitude are virtues of monks and they serve no purpose for human beings and these does not make a person a valuable member of society.But we have found a living example in Gandhi contradicting Hume’s statement.Gandhi demonstrated all such monkish virtues quoted by Hume and had proved himselves to be the most valuable individual the world had produced in the last millennium .How his values had been valued by entire world and how it had been useful to all who came near him itself bear testimony to this.It had served a purpose to millions of people in more than one continents ,as all of us know.
Hume includes humour,recreation,enjoyments of fun in his definition of happiness.But to have them,one needs to be permanently happy as Gandhi was.Gandhi had a rare sense of humour which no one else had.And about recreation and enjoyment of fun that is relative to different individuals depending upon their tastes and temperaments.Different games and pastimes are for that .And the individual as well as regional differences are there in them.(Which one can learn just by being in a special region and culture without any difficulty as we will see below regarding kolam etc by south Indian girls).Robert Lane noticed that in western societies income,education,health and intelligence have increased after the second world war ,but they have not made them more happier than their ancestors.So happiness is something related to the internal thoughts of bliss and its understanding ,rather than external factors which we can aquire by positive thoughts.
The need for money is never satisfied by individual or by policy makers of Government as we see from their request for more and more funds.So how can one achieve happiness with money ?When will new luxuries and technologies and commercialism which require more and more markets cease to satisfy all human beings to be happy with them ?And about health ,after all the years of costly research tools and discoveries what had medical science done to increase happiness of humanity?The cost of treatment does not give the result which they are expected to give and people are left penniless with a hospital stay and new disorders are detected as sideeffects of new research processes and medicines.And even doctors are unhappy and unhealthy.How can such a community give health and happiness to all ?The health propagandas are making people fearful and maniacs only.Satisfaction from health needs also is unlikely in such a background.How much the educationists,social workers and Governments areable to cope with such situations when they themselves are in a dilemma not knowing what to do except taking aids from center,world bank or from any other source they get hold of.(knowing very well that it will only save their faces for the short period of their political power and it is not a permanent solution for the nation or world).As a doctor I started to think about these from 1972 onwards.I was concerned about the problems my region as well as my profession and my nation face in these fields.The lack of nutrition,use of chemicals causing diseases in children and adults naturally leads one to food production,agroeconomy and its status in our nation.The waterborne diseases and impure water supply and problems concerned with water conservation and judicious use is also related subject .The poverty and lack of education and the cost of living and of medicines were directly felt by me and my husband while we were working in Calicut Medical college.And we worked out a system of helping as many people as possible by spending one person’s salary for it .If Humes definition is correct we would be considered as people who sacrificed enjoyments of fun,recreations that cost money and also luxuries (so that we can help another soul)and we are not useful citizens of society.But if we take Gandhi’s definition we are the most useful citizens to this nation and world.That we can leave for posterity to debate and decide.We will return to our integrated multicultural curriculum and valuebased education with music therapy as its inseparable part .


When we are thinking about a multicultural integrated curriculum for entire humanity we have to define some aspects of it and how they are controlled by the political powers.This we can call the politics of education,because ultimately it is the political power which determines what is to be taught or not taught.
In his article on “Beyond Eurocentrism”Prof Ram Mahalingam of Uty of Michigan(ch 10 pp189-198.Multicultural curriculum Mahalingam Mcarthy Routledge 2000) has observed that Indian Mathematics had always been a product of the elite ,hierarchical society and Brahmins and Kshatriyas were mathematicians of India while labourers and women were not given Mathematics education.Unfortunately this is not a truthful observation.He quotes from Manusmrithy (translated by Doniger 1991) but that translation alone cannot prove anything.Especially since he himself has quoted two examples (One of Kolam and other of Pallamkuzhi,both sports of women of South India )which requires lot of mathematical skill and geometrical awareness and abstract thinking.In North India the play called Leela(Gyan-Choupad) and the Dhooli chouki and other types of Chowki also are of this type .And the study of Music which involves abstract mathematics also is well documented from ancient times.The labourer class were responsible for counting and reporting and making complex calculations of the grain produce,cattle ,classification of weight and measures and also of taxation etc and these were taught right from Kudipallikooda level to all children by a local teacher.The children learned all these as games (due o their age this is the best educative method) and that is how kolam and pallanghuzhi and Lela,Chowki,stories (purana,Ithihasa)were taught in primary level schools of India .This was available to all alike .The secondary education they had from a local Guru according to their talents and practical needs .That is what we now call a professional education so that the person will have a job and a livelihood (Vocational).This usually starts at home with his own father/uncle/mother etc and then if the child is enthusiastic the best Guru is selected by parents themselves so that they get trained.The abstract subjects like mathematics,science etc were always chosen by only a few .It never had been a mass popular subject.It is taught only to those who are really receptive and to pursue a graduate/postgraduate level training in that particular subject.It is this specialized study that was lacking among women and labourers.This is not because of any hindrance to study but because majority does not like subjects like that.Even today it is like that.
The articles I wrote on Indus valley culture ,the weights and measures used by them etc show how the labourers and women have to know mathematics of utilitarian type and how the abstract concepts had been devised by the elders with more specialized knowledge in the subject.Manu’s laws can be equated to the rules and regulations of the civil and criminal courts and not to religion or spirituality of India.But unfortunately Manu is quoted by many as the spiritual/religious authority of India.The laws and regulations of any nation have a precedence of experience of disturbance of law and order by certain procedures and a defencive to prevent such occurrences further .The law is made for human beings to ensure peaceful living and not for disrupting it.So,the laws are applicable only to conditions/cases where there is a disputed situation.

What Mahalingam says about Kolam and Pallanghuzhi is my concern here.Kolam artists learn it from their mothers,sisters(traditional family transfer of knowledge) and to become competent kolam artist one has to have geometrical knowledge,strategic understanding of how to transfer knowledge to actual practice,make decisions on the spot depending upon available space so that she can reduce or increase size in proportion.Thus a complex abstract thinking and its practical application is taught as a traditional transfer of knowledge as an art,and a game for each girlchild.So how can we say that such knowledge was denied?
Then about Pallankuzhi:-Played by 2 people.Eachhas 7 cups and each cup has 6 beads .(42).Each has to distribute beads,one in each cup in clockwise direction.Then pick up next cup and start agin until she reach an empty pocket.The player can take beads next to empty cup.The game continue till all cups emptied.With whatever beads won ,they restart game.
This game involves distribution and regrouping of numbers and an excellent memory for recognizing various positions of game as in chess. The distribution and regrouping is what is called a prasthaara ,and this is done in both music and astronomy in advanced mathematics.This is taught as a game means it is an educational excellence of the teacher who devised it ,is my view.But Ramalingam considers it is a gender marginalization for women .Probably being a male (as well as a Brahmin himself from the name)he is misunderstanding /misrepresenting the ability of a girlchild to pick up such abilities earlier and faster than a male and he fails to see that even a lowborn labourer can play and understand suchhigher functions of mathematics through a simple game .The educational psychologists were really good in their selection of teachers from each household(as traditional/parent to offspring)so that the brain development starts at home as a primary school.
Such subaltern or region-specific teaching methods occur in all regions,all languages and all communities and when sage Mathanga speaks of Desi Tradition he means this(Brihadhesi of Mathanga .Dr .V.S.Sharma 2009 KeralasangheethaNataka Academi).When such dsi practices are codified and made universalized by proper theories and proper order then it is called Margi and this is what is done by curriculum committees /universities etc which have finally to be agreed and implemented by the Government (whether modern or ancient).Therefore ,when a regulation comes it is after ceveral millennia of development of a cultural tradition transferred by local people /men and women.Unless we know this the separatisms will go on and gaps between classes will remain and a classless glbal society will remain a dream.Hence the philosophy of advaitha came up in India for all to be loved and valued equally.That is the spiritual tradition of India .
Social epistemology being an enquiry to improve knowledge production and distribution,the way of distribution to all alike ,even to children as games etc has to be appreciated and valued in Indian mathematical consciousness.As Mahalingam suggests the native subaltern mathematician also is an active participant in multiculturalist discourses and our cultural legacy and knowledge systems are equally important and we know it perfectly well ,and instead of complaining perpetually about some imagined marginalization,by some imaginery elite class ,we (Women of India,like me )are taking up our issues boldly and with a knowledge that if we were marginalized it was not because of any one else,but by our own lack of interest to pursue such subjects as mathematics .Only by this step the marginalized societies(whether women or labour class)can make the classless society a reality .By self-marginalisation and complaint forever the separatism and gap will remain forever.Thus the concept of Eurocentrism is not an issue for a globally thinking mathematician of India who has studied both systems and compared it.This is my personal experience and opinion.I don’t feel a marginalized woman ,but I acknowledge the fact that many women do not like the subjects which I address to because of their own choice and not by the restrictions of Government or society to pursue them.People love a life of easy going.To pursue sciences seriously one needs a concentrated one-pointed devotion to that .That is the reason for self marginalization in many groups now and this must have happened in ancient societies as well.
When we devise a multicultural integrated curriculum ,it is meant for all ,but who is interested in it and who pursue it is not in our control is what I mean as a modern educationist.If we are efficient,we should therefore introduce games,musical experiences etc into curriculum which will give the desired effect to all .The theoretical aspects will remain always the fields of the elite.But its practical effects will reach all.
Ethnomathematicians recognize at least 2 areas of mathematical literacy.
1.School mathematics
2.Mathematics of a given cultural group
As small children have mathematical knowledge of their cultural group from parents and Kolam,Pallanghuzhi etc are reflections of those.When this is replaced by the modern school mathematics (as in India)the ancient traditional mathematical knowledge is left as a game and not pursued further as a system of mathematics.This is a natural outcome of replacing ethnomathematics by a new Eurocentric one as Mahalingam calls in his article.The traditional mathematical knowledge is not included in the curriculum of modern Indian schools/universities.Therefore ,it is now that the marginalization of Kolam,Pallankuzhi etc as ethnical curiosities ,has happened if we think logically.Not by the Brahmin/Kshathriya times .The kolams patterns in Indus valley civilization sites show how important this had been even in those remote times .The modern technologies and modern weights and measures etc when compared to Indus valley system gives us evidence of how human consciousness and knowledge has evolved beautifully over several millennia in a region ,and how that had stimulated technology and advancement of sciences in another rregion(when Europe came in contact with India).Thus we realize how an indigenous knowledge has given rise to Eurocentric knowledge.One is a continuation of another and there is no gap between them.But to know this one has to come in contact with both.study both.The cultural gaps are only differences in knowledge and communication,related to languages and to specialized interests of each human being and society from one another.The professional specialization is another factor in separating us.But ,with a little bit of compassion and love for all we will be able to overcome such gaps .This is the basics of my integrated,interdisciplinary ,multicultural curriculum which is a practical way of a grand unification of all sciences,arts,cultures etc for world peace.

The curriculum is guided by health,fundamental processes,a worthy homelife,a vocation for livelihood,a enlightened citizenship ,and worthy use of leisure time ,and a humanitarian value of compassion to all creation.These increase our selfesteem and are important for satisfaction and happiness.The nonending desire is the cause of sorrow while a fruitful life like this is the doorway for happiness.It educates one to be useful to society,home,nation and world at the same time remaining happy and facing life with courage and with a compassionate heart,enjoying every moment of it .It should come from a co-operative effort of all citizens of world and from all of us alike and every single person is valued for being a contributor to this cause and it is not money alone which is contribution,but ideas,thoughts,suggestions,service to community and also commitment and model one gives to posterity which is valued by all alike.

Education is for happiness and peace of individuals and of society and of entire world.
We have seen people who are never satisfied with anything in life ,even if they have everything-Money,power,good education,god family ,good husband/wife and children .Yet they go one complaining about everything .There is another group who are really deprived of such things and need them .The complaints they raise are for their rightful share on this earth.Only if an educator/administrator can differentiate between these two we can achieve a balanced economy and a balanced wellshared system of rights and duties.This must be the first aim of any educative system and administration.How to strike a balance is the real question that one should address oneself.All our strategies should be based on this.All human beings need basic amenities and for that each one should have enough food ,health and energy for work and job opportunities.The food reserve depend upon food productionand in a world with increasing population food production cannot be neglected.The decision to make a tropical country with enough geographical features for natural vegetation,biodiversity ,and food for all into a concrete jungle is detrimental to entire world.The deserts should be made into construction sites .The fertile lands and forests left as such so that the water tables,the food reserves and the natural resources for all life forms as well as tourism benefits will increase .If we stick on to this policy ,and then give our priorities as food,health,education,and job in a comprehensive way ,we can achive protection of our ecotraditions and culture and yet be global citizens sharing our products for those are not having them.Thus we can make education and sociopolitical awareness into powerful tools for happiness and peace.
Ref
1. Multicultural curriculum .New directions for social theory and practice.Ram Mahalingam ,Cameron McCarthy .Routledge 2000
2.Happiness and education.Nel Noddings .Stanford uty.Cambridge uty press.2003
3.Brihadhesi .Mathangamuni.Translation.V.S.Sharma .Keralasahitya academy.2009.
4.Essential Einstein.Everything you need to know about the world’s most acclaimed genius.Shana Priwer & Cynthia Philips PhD.David & Charles Ltd 2007.

Wednesday, February 3, 2010

Preparing field and pest control for paddy

The preparation of field,and pest control


Soiltesting

Based on pH, major types
1.Highly acidic pH below 6.5.Best for paddy cultivation between 5-6.5.yield poor if below 5 .Alluvial,sandy clay,clayey soil suitable for it.
2.Medium type between 6.5-7.5
3.Alkaline 7.9 and above.
The classification in Rasi,pasimarasi etc given in old texts was for this purpose.(see previous chapters for details of the ancient classification of soil)


Seasons in Tamil Nadu with variations in different districts .
Swarnavari in summer April 15-August 14 (Mesha 1st or Vishuvam to Simha 1st)
Samba(Champav) July 15-January 14(Karkitaka 1 to Makaram 1 )
Late Sambha or Thaladi September 15-January 14th (kanni 1st to Makaram 1st)
Navarai December 15th –March 30(Dhanu 1st to Meenam 30 )
Kuruvai june 1-August 31.(Rishabha 15th to Simha 15th)
Varity vary with district.

Organic manure
1Farmyard manure
All nutrients required for plants present in this and it remain for longer periods in soil giving good results.
Cowdung 5-7 tonnes/acre
Goat dung 5 ton/acre
Poultry waste 2 ton/acre
Pig dung 1 ton/acre
Applied as basal manure during last plough.Farmyard manure is allowed to decay and then used.Applied and ploughed into soil the same day.
2 Biofertilisers
Atmosphere has 78 % nitrogen.Soil bacteria fix it and convert it so that plants can absorb it from soil.These are acetobacter,azospirillum,phosphobacteria.Instead of using them directly one can cultivate leguminous plants in field so that their roots do the same function.
Another method of growing algae ,azolla (a floating fern)with paddy is suggested with paddy as intercrop.These also provides nitrogen.But ancients used water lily for the same purpose and that is better than using cyanobacteria like blue gren algae or ferns .The overgrowth of the African plants in Malabar area is a example of uncontrollable growth of such plants.
3.Amrithakaraisal is an extract prepared easily.
Fresh cowdung 10 kg
Cows urine 10 liter
Jaggery 1 kg
Water 100 liters
Added to a cement tank and mixed well.Extract is ready for use next day.500 Liters needed for one acre crop.Mix with water for irrigation and can be used as spray (for which 10 liters are needed).
4 Green manure:-
Crops cultivated in field before the main crop.They are ploughed into soil before flowering stage and used as manure.Essential for paddy.Leguminosae family is used for this.
Crotalaria juncea or sun hemp
Sesbania cannabina or Dainchaa
Sesbania speciosa or sesbania
Tephrosia purpurea or wild indigo
Indigofera tinctoria or Indian indigo
Tephrosia noctiflora

5 Green leaf manure
Albizia lebbeck(sirisha tree)
Calotropis gigantean(Gigantic swallow wort)
Cassia auriculata(tanner’s cassia)

Azadirachta indica(common neem or vep)
Gliricidia sepium(spotted variety)
Pongamia pinnata(Indian beech)
Morinda pubescens(Muringa)
Delonix elata(white gulmohar)

The leaves used as manure as well as in preparation of biopepticides.
6.Oil seed cake.
The pith left over after oil extraction is a source of nitrogen .Groundnut cakes,neem seed cakes,castor seed cakes are used.For paddy neem and groundnut cakes are used.This gives organic nitrogen for paddy growth.
Cake Basal manure Top dressing
Neemseed cake 60 kg/acre 25 kg/acre
Groundnut cake 40 kg/acre 25 kg/acre

7.Crop Rotation In South Arcot District ,North Arcot ,Chengalpet, banana,sugarcane and betel are alternative crops for paddy.Sesbania is a intermediate crop between two paddy crops .
Three varieties are sown in three seasons .

Samba (July –Jan) Navarai(Dec –March) Swarnavari(April-August)
Paddy Blackgram Sesame
Paddy Groundnut Paddy
Paddy Cotton -
Paddy Vegetables Green manure crops (for seeds)

The nutrients used by first crop is replaced by following crop and nutrient requirement of second crop is different .This maintains nutrient balance of soil.
8 Panchagavya
Every temple going person might have heard of Panchagavya as the 5 sacred products from cow .It was prepared in temples and given to farmers for use in the common fields .
Preparation was as follows.
Cowdung 5 Kg
Cows urine 3 liters
Ghee 1 liter
Cows milk 2 liters
Curd 2 liters
Other ingredients added to this:-
Tender coconut 3 liters
Cane juice or jaggery 3 liters or 1 kg
Yellow plantain 12 numbers or honey ½ kg
Cowdung,urine and ghee mixed in a cement tank(30 liter capacity) for one week with stirring in morning and evening ,release methane gas.To this mixture add milk,curd,tender coconut ,ripe yellow plantain,and jaggery.After a weeks time filter and use extract.
3 % is sprayed during tillering and bootling stage for coarse varieties to increase yield.For thin varieties 3 % sparayed once during bootling stage.During flowering stage 10 % buttermilk extract or 3 % tender coconut is sprayed.This help uniform flowering and increase yield.

Composting techniques:-
Land selected should not be low lying or waterlogged.
Upland elevated land that has shade is ideal for compost preparation.
Soil should not be sandy
Soil where compost is prepared should not be penetrated by roots of trees.
Plastic products,polythene ,bones of cattle,stones,thick stems of plants and glass bottle pieces to be avoided.
Types of compost are
Biodung compost
Cycle method
Vermicompost
Compost is done in pits,concrete tanks,well rings,wooden or plastic crates appropriate for the given situation and need.

Water management:
Water should stagnate in rice field.2 cm of water should stagnate in field during transplantation.From 10th day of transplantation to the day of maturity ,3 cm of water should stagnate.There should be no water shortage during tillering,flowering and milky stage.Top dressing should not be done in marshy fields where there is water stagnation.The water should be drained and land allowed to dry before adding the manure.The field should be irrigated immeadiately after manuring.

Pests of paddy are leaf eating insects and caterpillars ,sap feeders,and stem borers.

Leaf eating insects;-
1leaf folder.Cnaphalocrocis medinalis .Lepidoptera .Abrownish orange moth that lay eggs on upper surface of leaves.
Symptoms are rolling of leaves,eggs and larvae seen in the folded leaf blades,the crop has sickly appearance with white patces in severely affected fields.Longitudinal white streaks on leaf blade seen.Leaves loose chlorophyll .ETL or economic threshold level management should start immeadiately when more than 10 leaves are damaged.
3-5 % Andrographis paniculata kashaayam
Garlic,ginger,chilli extract
5% neem kernel extract spray
Are the control measures
2.Rice case worm Nymphula depunctalis .Lepidoptera.
Small moth with white wing.Symptoms as caterpillar cuts leaves into small pieces and rolls longitudinally into box-like structure.Damaged leaves hang as longitudinal rolls at tips of leaf.Some seen floating on surface of water.The larvae seen inside cut leafrolls hence called case worms.ETL when more than 10 leaves damaged .Management by rope method
3 Green horned caterpillar Melanitis leda ismene .Lepidoptera.
A butterfly dark brown with black and yelloe eye markings.
Larvae attack plants in seedling stage and during tillering stage.They attack as a group and affect growth
4.Yellow hairy caterpillar Psalis pennatula .Lepidoptera
Yellow colour.orange head.Red stripes and hairs all over body.Silky pupae.Infest during growth and when the earhead forms.Leaves damaged,growth affected.
ETL when more than 10 leaves affected.
5.Army worm Spodoptera litura .Lepidoptera
Adult moth is dark brown with conspicuous black spot on forewing.Larvae attack leaves at night and eat them completely leaving midribs.The crop has a look of a field grazed with cattle.ETL when more than 10 leaves affected.
6 Skipper Philopidus mathyas .Lepidoptera.
Leaves longitudinally folded.The leaves become skeletal .
10 kg neemcake as basal manure /acre of transplanted field prevent entry of caterpillar into field.
Neem leaves in a bunch at different places in field also keep away them.
Wood ash controls the caterpillars.For one acre 10-12 kg mixed with sand is strewn in field.This is low cost technology followed even by small scale farmers
Field is flooded and then drained .By this,all larve and pupa hiding in soil is exposed and removed.
7 Gall Midge Orseolia oryzae .Diptera.
Adult fly is yellow .It lays 100-200 elongated eggs on undersurface of leaves..Yellow maggots turn to brown pupae .
Terminal portion of crop turns into tubular gall.If severe,growth affected.Tubular galls resembling onion leaves are found.The larvae and adults suck sap and insert poisonous substance called sesitogen into leaves.The rolling of leaf to shape of elephant trunk happen .ETL when more than 10 % of earheads are infested.
8 Short horned grasshopper
Hieroglyphus banaian .Arthroptera.
Green colour.The leaves damaged.Nibble the tender florets and grains.Earheads turn white even before they emerge.
Spreading Calotropis leaves besides the bunds of the field prevents entry of grasshoppers
Manage with a solution of cowdung or goat dung .30-50 kg of dung taken in gunny bag and that bag is balanced on a pole .Below it a drum filled with 100-200 liters water is kept.Tip of gunny bag is touching the surface of water.The gunny bag is shaken twice a day for 15 days.After 15 days the water in drum is brown and a foul smell will emerge.This is diluted with twice the amount of water and sprayed.This is a repellent for grasshoppers.
The sap feeders:-
1 Green leaf hopper .Nephotettix virescens .Hemiptera.
Tip of leaf become yellow.The growth affected.They transmit the viral particles of Tungro virus.ETL when more than 5 adults are found per hill during growing stages .10/hill is the ETL for flowering stages.
Transplant seedlings after dipping in neem kernel extract for 24 hours to increase their resistance to pests.Neem oil and pongam oil is mixed in ratio of 1:4 and sprayed in field.
Wild grass and weeds removed from field bund and field since they are the favourite egglaying spots of pests.
2 Brown plant hopper
Nilaparvata lugens .Hemiptera.
Colour same as that of soil.Crops show burned apperence.Dries in patches.While walking across field ,hoppers can be seen flying.
Adults remain in basal part of crop and suck sap.The plants turn yellow and then dry up causing browning of leaves refered to as hopper burn.As they move from one plant to another they spill sap on other plants and reslts in spread of sooty mould fungus.Stem rot disease is seen in areas affected by plant hopper infestation.ETL if more than 15 pests per hill .A cloudy weather and closer spacing,heavy application of nitrogenous chemical fertilizers are favourable for rapid multiplication of the species.
Control measures are judicious use of nitrogenous fertilizers,avoidance of water stagnation ,light traps to monitor and attack adults,field and bund cleaning without weeds ,BPH control by sunlight allowed to enter the under part of plants by proper spacing.
3 mealy bug Heterococcus rehi .Hemiptera.
White stout adults.
Stunted crops and panicle formation affected.
Dry spells and drought favours the pest population.control measures are neem kernel extract spraying.
4 Ear head bug Leptocorisa acuta .Hemiptera.
Brown adults with long legs.Foul odour from fields is its presence.Infestation more in milky stage.The grains have brownish round dots.ETL if more than 5 pests per panicles .Control measure Cycas cercinalis flower (sannampoo)is cut and tied to a stick which is taller than crop level.Placed in 10-15 places in field.This prevents entry for about 2 weeks . By this time the milky stage is completed and crop attains maturity.IKg of Achryranthus aspera root and 1 kg neem bark is dried and powdered and mixed with water and sprayed.This is for 1 acre land
5 Black bug Scotinophora coarctata .Hemiptera.
Black colour
Blasts on leaf and leaf sheath.Chlorophil content in central part of leaf is eaten up.the leaves break and hang.The pest remains in tillers,leaves,and axils.The leaves turn yellow and crops are stunted.ETL when more than 5 beetles per hill or when more than 10 % leaves damaged/hill during tillering stage.Applying neem cake as top dressing control the entry of beetles.

Stem borers:-
1 yellow stem borer. Scirpophaga incertulas .Lepidoptera
Adult female moth is bright yellow forewing with black spot.Larva makes hole on undersurface of stem.White chaffy ears seen at irregular intervals all over field.When infested in early stages groth and tillering affected.
The growing tip is destroyed by boring into leaf sheath.This disrupt flow of water and nourishment to plant causing drying of central shoot.(cause white ears).Larva found inside central shoot.ETL when two egg masses or 2 % white ears /sq meter is seen.
Control by applying 42-50 kg neemcake as basal manure,Neemcake bags kept in irrigation channels,Pheromone traps to attract male adults,light traps,ploughing immeadiately after harvest to destroy eggs and pupae,seedlings planted with proper spacing.
As I write this (on 3rd Feb 2010 Mathrubhoomi daily I find a report that in a place in Palghat district ,near Srikrishnapuram in a field where the agricultural department had asked farmers to do crops out of season,when the plants grew the entire ears have turned white.This must be due to the problem of infestation of stem borer.The tips given above may be looked into and implemented before they start next crop).

Rodents:-
Rats feed on seeds sown in nursery and destroy seedlings .Cause damage in panicle initiation stage.Cut mature panicle and store grain in their holes.Also damage storage godown grains.
Take unripe papaya fruit.Cut into small pieces.Spread over the bunds.The chemical in it cause damage to rat’s mouth For 1 acre 4-5 fruits are enough.Ripe fruits should not be used.
Take 2-3 kg Ipomoea fistulos aand add 3-5 liters of water.Boil for ½ hour.Filter extract.Take 2-3 kg sorghm seeds and add the extract to it.Boil again for ½ hour.Spread these seeds in rat burrows.rats feeding on this will die.
Take mudpot and fill with straw .Sprinkle water over starw .Make a hole at bottom of pot.Invert over rathole near the bunds.Light the straw and cover the hole with mudpaste before smoke escapes.The smoke suffocate rats .
Spread screwpine trees bark and leaves over bunds of field.When rats try to cross bunds ,thorns spread on margin of leaves scratches the lower belly of rats and rats do not enter fields.Growing thorny bushes of pineapple in bund also has same effect.

FUNGAL DISEASES:-
1 Rice blast Pyricularia orizae is an airborne fungal disease.Small specks on leaves enlarge to spindleshaped spots of varying lengths with a whitish grey center and brown margin.Nodes and neck of panicle blacken lrading to breaking (neck blast)at point of infection.The affected panicle break due to weight of grain.Symptoms start from seedling stage upto 3rd week of harvest.The symptom can be seen on stem also.Black shaded region seen above and below the node.When infection happen during the milky stage the panicle gets poorly filled.
2.Rice brown leaf spot. By Helminthosporium oryzae
A seedborne fungal infection.Leaves show round or oval irregular brown spots which coalesce to form whithering of tissue.Avelvety growth seen on glumes.Brown or grey brown seen at neck region sometimes.Grains show red brown discolouration.Spots are like sesame seeds.Hence also called sesamum leafspot.
3.Sheath blight by Rhyzoctonia solani
Spreads through weeds and pathogens.First symptom seen on leaf sheath is appearance of greenish grey lesions.Later they turn to straw colour and increase in size which girdles the stem.The leaf blade dries up from tip downwards ,the grains shriveled and poorly filled.
4 stem rot by Leptospheria salvinii
Soilborne fungus.Disease appear after transplanting in the form of small black irregular lesions at waterline on the leaf sheath and stem.Such infected stem rots and falls down.Spikelets appearing in affected plants remain chaffy.Disease is more severe in fields where water remains stagnant and lack proper drainage facility.

Bacterial disease:-
Bacterial leafblight by Xanthomonas campestris p.v.oryzae
Seedborne bacterial disease .Yellow colour watersoaked lesions on both edge of leaves ,which later coalesce and entire surface turns into straw colour.The affected leave s roll completely ,droop and ultimately the tillers wither away .The symptoms appear 4-6 weeks after transplanting .Affected plants produce chaffy grains.High nitrogenous fertilizer favour blight epidemics especially where susceptible cultivas are grown.

Viral diseases :-
Tungro or leaf yellowing by Virus complex.
Spread through viral particles.Older leaves turn yellow orange starting from tips,spread downwards covering entire leaf .Young leaves mottled with dark brown blotch.Plants become stunted and bear poor panicles with empty glumes.Transmitted by green grass hopper .

Disease management:-
1.Take cows urine in a mudpot and allow it to ferment for one week.Spray this over the crop to control bacterial and fungal diseases.According to intensity of disease the quantity can be reduced from ½ liter to 1 liter per tank.
2.Mix one liter of cows urine with one liter buttermilk and 8 liter of water.Spray the extract over crop to control bacterial and fungal diseases.
3.Mix 300 ml of sweet flag extract with one liter of cows urine and 8.7 liters of water.Spraying this extract controls spreading of diseases.Sweet flag extract required for 1 acre of crop is prepared by mixing 400 gm sweetflag powder with 2 liter water.This should be kept undisturbed for 3 hours and then filtered.

Storage pests rats and fungi destroy grains stored after harvest.
1.Rice weevil( Sitophilus oryzae .Coleoptera)
2 Lesser grain Borer(Rhyzopertha dominica.Coleoptera)
3.Angoumois Grain moth or Sitotroga cerealella(Lepidoptera)
4 Rice moth .Corcyra cephalonica .Lepidoptera.
Management in storage :-
1.Godowns keptclean.Waste and unwanted material periodically removed
2.Cracks on floors ,walls,roofs sealed
3.Grains should not have more than 12 % moisture content
4.Gunny bags stacked with proper aereation in between
5.If grains are to be stored for longer periods ,gunny bags should be dried in sun once in three months to prevent pest attack
6.The bags should not be placed directly on floor.Place on a wooden log one foot above ground level to prevent grains from getting moisture
7.When grains are stored in mudpots ,mouth of pot sealed with neem leaf paste
8.Mixing seeds with neem oil prevent pest attacks.1 kg paddy seeds mixed with 10 ml neem oil and dried in shade ,before storing.
9.Bags used for storage should be treated with 10 % neem extract before use.The neem kernel to be used immediately after preparation.Soak gags in it for 15 mts.Then dry in shade and use for storage.If bag is new soak for ½ hour.If bag has loose meshes and small pores thiner solutions to be prepared .By this method grains are protected from pests for 4 months.
10 In store rooms along with cowdung used for cleaning floor,neem kernel extract or neem oil should be used directly .This is to be used for mud walls also
11.If bamboo bins are used for storage they are painted with thick neem kernel extract .
12.Seeds and grains stored are protected from pests by placing leaves of vitex ,neem and pongam on bags and in different places in godown
13.While filling bags ,for every 20 kg seeds,2 handful of powdered vitex ,neem,pongam leaves are spread.By this grains are protected for more than one year
14.Storage godowns should have proper aeration
15.Adult moths controlled by fumigation.Iron pan with hot coal placed in godown/granary .Fresh neem leaves or vitex leaves spread over coal.Doors,windows,ventilators shut during process to facilitate proper spreading of smoke.Smoke should remain in room for 30-45 minutes.Then open dors.The adult moths will beseen lying on floor.Clean the room .This has to be repeated when the adult moths increase in population.
BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS IN PADDY FIELD –FARMER’S FRIENDS
1Lady bird beetle
3 types.
Micraspis crocea (typical coccinellid)eats small brown grasshopper,larvae,exposed eggs ,aphids,coccids,other soft bodied insects
Harmonia octomaculata (blackspotted) eats brown planthopper eggs,nymphs,adults .They are voracious.Eat 5-10 prey/day
Monochilus sexmaculatus eats brown plant hopper,gren leaf hopper,rice aphids,leaf folder,stem borer.
2.Ground beetle .Ophionea nigrofasciata.
Eats leaf folder larvae,brown plant hopper,green leaf hopper,white backed plant hopper,hairy caterpillar,green semilooper,stemborer.Consume 3-5 larvae/day.
3.Crickets .Metioche vittaticollis
Eats striped and darkheaded stem borer,leaf folders,armyworms,nymphs,adults of brown plant hopper.
4.Damsel flies Agriocnemis pygmaea.
Eats brown planthopper,green leafhopper,leaf folder,white backed plant hopper.
5.Earwig.Euborellia stali
Eats stem borer larvae,leaf folder larvae .Each earwig consume 20-30 prey /day
6 Ants .Solenopsis geminate
Eats wide variety of insects like adult blackbugs and their eggs.
7 Wasps belonging to different families.Eat stem borer larvae,brown plant hopper,green leaf hopper,skipper and green hairy caterpillar
8.Long horned grass hoppers .Conocephalus longipennis
Eats rice bugs,stem borer eggs,brown plant hopper,green leaf hopper,nymphs and adults.Each predator consume 1-4 yellow stem borer eggmasses/day
9.Small ripple bug .Microvelia douglasiatrolinata. Eats brown plant hopper,stem borer,larvae,green leaf hopper and softbodied insects.
10 Water stridor.Limnogonus sp.
Eats green leaf hopper,brown plant hopper ,rice leaf roller,armyworm,cutworms
11.Water treader Mesovelia vittigera
Eats gren leaf hopper,brown plant hopper,white backed plant hopper,zigzag leaf hopper
12 Mirid bug .Cyrtorhinus lividipennis
Eats brown plant hopper,green leaf hopper,stem borer,white backed plant hopper .
13 Assasin bug .Polytoxus fuscovittatus
Eats larvae of moths and butterflies
14.Orb spider Argiope sp
Eats leaf folder,brown plant hopper,green leaf hopper,white backed plant hopper,stem borer.
15.Long jawed spider Terragnatha sp
Eats green grass hoper,whitebacked plant hopper,brown plant hopper
16.Wolf spider Lycosa pseudoannulata
Eats stem borer,brown plant hopper,green leaf hopper,(both adult and nymph).An adult consume 15 hoppers/day
17 Lynx spider .Oxyopes sp
Eats brown plant hopper,case worm,green leaf hopper,white backed plant hopper
18 Jumping spider Phidippus sp
Eats green leaf hopper,brown plant hopper,white backed plant hopper,stem borer moths.Each consume 2-8 prey/day
19 Dwarf spider Atypena sp
Eats green leaf hoppers,brown plant hoppers.Each consume 4-5 /day
When we apply chemicals both the harmful and the friendly pests are destroyed totally .When organic extracts are used this does not happen and the race of the harmful pests also survive to some extant (but not to cause destruction to paddy ) so that the predator lives .The predator species live only if the prey species are there.This is what is meant by the saying Jeevo Jeevasya Jeevanam by Susruthasamhitha.It is very different from the survival of the fittest applied in modern sense of the word.(Those with power destroying those without power).The ancients knew how to make use of the principle of Jeevo jeevasya jeevanam by organic extracts and kashaaya and we will see the ingredients of some in next chapter.

Indegenous plant extracts for organic farming

Plant extracts for disease management and their preparation

1 Neem kernel extract
3-5 kg of neem kernel required for 1 acre.Remove outer seed coat and use only the kernel.If seeds are fresh ,3 kg kernel is enough.If seeds are old ,5 kg needed.Pound it gently and place in an earthen pot.Add 10 liter water.Tie the mouth of pot with a cloth.Leave for 3 days.Filter.6-7 liters of extract is obtained.Its shelf life is one month.500-1000 ml of it used for a tank of 10 liter capacity.500-1000 ml of extract diluted with 9 ½ or 9 liters of water before spraying.Khadi soap solution @ 10 ml /liter (100 ml /tank)is to be added to help extract stick well to leaf surface.The concentration of extract can be increased or decreased depending on intensity of pest attack.
The extract can be stored for one month.Seeds used for preparing the extract should be at least 3 months old.When less than 3 or more than 8 months old pest control property of seed is less.The extract prepared should be milky white colour.If from aged seeds the extract will be brown colour and not suitable.

Neem cake extract:
5 kg of neem cake is required for an acre land.Powder neem cake well and place it in a cotton cloth and tie it.Soak in vessel containing 10 liter water for 3 days.After 3 days,squeeze pouch well into water.About 7-8 liters of extract obtained.500-1000 ml of it used for 1 tank (10 liter capacity).Dilute 500-1000ml of it I 9-9 ½ liter water.Add Khadi soap solution as mentioned before.10 tanks of extract sprayed for one acre crop.Concentration of extract increased or decreased depending on severity of pest attack.Shelf life is one month.
Neem oil spray
1200-1800 ml neem oil required for one acre.200-300 ml oil required for 1 tank (10 liter capacity).Take neem oil and soap solution of required amount ,mix well.Add required water(9.8 or 9.7 liter)and stir well.
Should be used immeadiately after preparation.Otherwise oil droplets float on surface .Power sprayers used for spraying.
Preparation of Khadi soap solution:- This is a neembased soap without any detergent.Should be soaked overnight in water and used.Soap solution should be sticky and thick.

Ginger,Garlic,Chilli Extract:-
For 1 acre land 1 kg garlic,1/2 kg ginger,1/2 kg green chilly needed.Take each separately and make them into a fine paste.Dissolve in 7 liters water ,mix well.Filter to get 6 liter extract.Concentration increased or decreased from 500-1000 ml (per tank/10 liter)depending on need.Use immeadiately after preparation.Can be stored only for a maximum of 3 days.

Five leaf extract:-
Leaves with different characteristics are used.
Plants with milky latex.Calotropis,Nerium,cactus,Jatropha.
Bitter plants; Neem ,Andrographis,Tinospora and Leucas
Plants generally avoided by cattle:Adathoda,Ipomoea fistulosa
Aromatic plants:-vitex,ocimum
Plants not affected by pests and diseases:-Morinda,Ipomea fistulosa

One plant from each category is taken in equal quantity (1 kg each)and pound well.Take in a mudpot and add twice the quantity of water.To this add 1 liter cows urine and 100 gm asafetida.Tie mouth of pot tightly with cloth.The extract mixed well daily in the evening.
Can be used for a period of one week.As prophylactic 500 ml extract added for tank of 10 liter capacity.Diluted with 9 ½ liter water and used.If pest infestation is severe ,1000 ml extract per tank and diluted with 9 liter water.Stored and used for 25-30 days
Cows urine used for disease control and asafetida prevents flower droppings and enhance yield.
Jatropha leaf extract:
For one acre 5 kg leaves needed.Pound leaves.Take in mudpot.Add 5 liter water.Allow to ferment for 3 days to 1 week.Filter .1/2 liter extract diluted with 9 ½ liter water for obtaining on etank extract.

Kashaayam preparation:
Collect plants without the roots.Cut into small pieces.For 1 acre crop ,2 kg of cut plants mixed with 8 liter water.Take in wide mouthed vessel ,boil until extract reduce to 2 liters.Cool,Filter.300 ml used after diluting with 100 ml soap solution and 9.4 liter water to obtain 1 tank capacity .

Plants used for kashayam Andrographis paniculata Sida spinosa Adathoda zeylanica Panchathiktha kashaayam
Pest/disease controlled. All kinds of larvae Aphids and sap feeders Fungal diseases All kinds of pests

Panchathiktha kashaaya is prepared by using equal quantities of 5 types of bitter leaves.
The kashayam extracts are kept closed ,and stirred daily
Extract sprayed using hand sprayer
Power sprayers for controlling winged pests like green plant hopper ,ear head bug,white flies
For one tank extract 100 ml khadi soap solution added
The extracts sprayed in morning between 7-10 AM.

.

Non-chemical methods of pest management

1.Summer ploughing to expose al inactive eggs ,larvae ,pupae etc so that sun and predators destroy them
2.keep bunds clear of grass and weeds where the eggs are laid
3 Plastering of bunds to seal ratholes and water leakage
4.proper space among seedlings
5.Provide sufficient gaps .I ft gap for every 8 feet to enable sunlight to reach the under parts .
6.Planting in right season.This protects paddy from pests.
7 Rope method.Fill field with water upto 5 cms.Mix 1 liter kerosene with 25 gm sand and strewn on field.Drag a string (Rajju)over surface of leaves so that caterpillars fall to water.Kerosene kills them.Drain water to remove dead caterpillars.Dry the field and then irrigate .Practiced oly during the vegetative growth phase of crop.
7 Provision for sunlight
Neekal podum Murai practiced in Chengal pet district is a ancient traditional practice.Women stand in a line in between plants and walk from one end to other of field by pressing the under parts of plants .This enable sunlight to reach lower parts.Kills nymphs of brown plant hopper sticking to under surface of plants .Checks rodent population.
8.Trapping of pests
By yellow sticky trap .An empty tin or plate smeared with castor oil placed 1 ft above the crop camopy in field.Green leaf hopper and brown plant hopper attracted by the bright yellow colour and trapped in oil smear.Wiped out every day and fresh oil applied again.
Light trap is used to monitor and trap adult .Electric bulbs,hurricane lamps,kerosene lamps ,bonfires were used in differet historical times for the purpose..Near the light a largeplate or vessel with kerosene mixed with water kept .The light trap is 2-3 ft above the rop canopy.The trap is set up between 6 PM -9 PM.If kept after 9 PM beneficial insectsalso trapped.Adult moths attracted to light fall in kerosene water.
Pheromone trap are organic compounds secreted by insects mostly females to attract males during mating.Such lures are synthesized in laboratories to attract male adult insects.Thus females are deprived of mates and fail to reproduce.For 1 acre 2-3 traps neded.Tie to a stick and keep 1-2 ft above crop canopy .The lure is effective for 15 days.It has to be changed fortnightly.
Bird perches are T shaped and eructed in fields at rate of 15-20 per acre.1 ft above crop canopy.The birds rest on them and eat the harmful pests.

9.Preventing entry of pests in to field

Use of cycas flowers(Sannampoo)cut into pieces ,wrapped with straw and placed in field.10-15 pieces/acre.Odour prevents earbugs for 2 weeks.By the time milky stage is completed.
Plants with pest repellent properties include neem cake/neem leaves,vitex leaves,morinda leaves,calotropis leaves,Jatropha leaves.Any 2 of these are taken ,pound well ,taken in mudpot and thrice quantity of water added.Mouth of pot tied with cloth ,left for 3 days.The pots are placed on 4 corners of field.In evening mouth of pots opened and stirred well.Unpleasant odour from pot prevents entry of pests into field.
Neemcake is for pest control as well as for manuring and bags with it are placed in irrigation canals so that slowly the neem cake dissolves and flow to entire field.Once in 15 days the bags are replaced with fresh neemcakes.
10
Biological methds using egg cards of parasitoid Trichogramma japonicum is a new method and is a commercial modern method.The previous methods are well tested by Indian farmers over centuries and are cost effective so that this new method is not mentioned in this article.(Reasons: cost .And being new its suitability to Indian conditions is doubtful and we will have to wait and see the side effects it brings later just like chemicals.)

Textile industry in ancient and medieval India

Textile industry and tools for it in Ajantha and Mughal paintings:-
Cotton fibres need cleaning before spun into yarn.The harvested cotton is left for a few days in sun to weaken adherence of seeds to floss in order to facilitate the former’s separation from floss.This is done by two traditional methods;
1.Roller and Board:-The roller is Cylindrical in shape.(See this important geometrical feature for understanding the mathematical proportions and knowledge which we will be discussing on another aspect of Indology,Mathematics and geometrical calculation and technological improvements.)This is worked with both hands and feet.It is kept on a flat board and worked with hands.(seen in Ajanta frescoes) and decribed in Miftah –ul-Fuzula a 15th century Illustrated Persian dictionary as a wooden instrument called Chubakin or chublin.This separates cotton from seeds.The method was also practiced in medieval China.The foot manipulated roller was used in South India until 19th century.Both hand and foot practices were known in India in different regions.
2.Cotton-gin.Depicted in Ajanta fresco.Schlingloff recognized it as bow-string device to separate cotton fibres.This was called a Charkhi(a wheel) but with a rectangular frame .The upper rollers are visible though slender.The cotton is fed between two rollers and the rollers are moved by hands in a wheellike fashion.This was used till mid-6th century AD in India.The same principle is used in Indian sugarcane rollers .There is no evidence of worm rollers in any other civilizations and both cotton and sugarcane being indigenous to India the methods are devised by Indians and in India is accepted.The difference from the sugarcane roller is that the cotton-ginning rollers are mounted so as to rotate vertically ,whereas sugarcane rollers move horizontally.In cotton-ginning the two oppositely rotating rollers were made to engage by placing the elongated worms side by side.The charkha had a crank handle but when this improvisation was made is not certain .It occurs in Bahar-i-Ajam(1740)and in miniature Kangra paintings(mid18th century)so that a date prior to this must be its origin.Islamic world received the technology from India before Chinese.China got it in 14th century .AD.

3.After ginning,cotton fibres are separated.Scutching loosens texture of cotton,removes dirt and dust.For this the most primitive method was to beat with stick.Till 17th century this was done along with the improvised bow and string method in India.While beating ,the fibres may be broken.That is why the Indians started to use bow and string devise.The vibrations of the string open up knots of cotton ,loosen and separate fibres of plant material instead of scutching where the fibres are broken.
Origin of bowstring device is seen in Jathaka tales (Ithinam Kappasapothanadhanukam or a woman’s bow for raising cotton).Therefore it was used in Pre-Christian Budhist and Sangham era.Its resemblance to the Yazh and its vibratory nature and relation to musical instruments of India is very interesting.It had a rectangular frame in Ajantha fresco of mid 6th century.But ,the rectangular frame cannot produce the necessary vibration.Only if it is bowshaped it is possible .Therefore the word Dhanus or dhanukam in pre-Christian Budhist texts is important.A bow with a string has elementary aspect of a spring in a vibrating wire,for loosening and separating fibres instead of scotching.The instrument in Ajanta fresco is therefore a Charki(which can have a rectangular frame ) and not a bowstring.
11th and 12th century texts of Sanskrit gives some information.(Vaijayanti of 11th and Abhidhaanachintamani of 12th century give pinjana as cotton carder’s bow).Pictures are given in Miftah-ul Fazla .There are two pictures in it.Shape is identical.Each has a round wooden bow shaft.The shape of top of bow is like a sickle.Bottom made by a board probably inserted into slot of a round board carrier and the whole attached to a shaft.A strong bowstring runs from top to bottom of footboard of bow.Both do not show a toggle-peg which is placed between the strings to achieve rough tightening by twisting it.The leathern block between string and foot-board for final adjustment is absent.A sling of some material (perhaps cotton yarn)is fastened to bowshaft near its center of gravity.The bower passes one hand through sling while working ,it also protects his hand.The Miftah-ul-Fuzala gives synonyms Duruna,Shafshahang,Lorak,Kaman-naddaf to the bow-string.
An important part of the devise is its mallet.This is called Mushta and Miftah-ul Fuzala calls it shafshahang.This is shown in both pictures.It had double tapering ends.It is held in its middle by right hand.The ridge of the upper head grips bowstring when bower strikes string with a mallet.When struck,the string becomes very tense and slips off the ridge.This results in strong vibrations ,which help loosen the cotton fibres.This device still survives in India and the cotton carder is called Dhuniya and the process is called Dhunna ,both names denoting Dwani or sound waves.
4.Spinning is the next preliminary process prior to weaving.Spindle is used to spin yarn.This came before the spinning wheel.In Ajanta fresco a lady is depicted as spinning yarn.Archeologists have found whorls,a supplementary part of spindle inIndus valley(E.Mackay.Early Indus civilization.New Delhi 1976.pp 82).
Miftah-ul Fuzala describes shokak and sangok as whorlholder in which spindle (duk)is rotated.The whorlholder is called Phirki in Hindi.Duk is a long spindle made of wood under which another wood is and that iron or wood is rotated by both hands so that short silk or wool is twisted.The 2 bits of wood or one bit of wood and another bit of iron ,in this definition refers to whorl of spindle containing the spindle ,the phirki .The whorl increase the speed of the spindle ,leading to more rapid spinning of yarn and this was known to Indus valley people shows how much they had known the physical laws like spinning ,acceleration ,momentum,etc nothing to speak of vibratory mechanics .
The single-spindle handspinning wheel was a major tool of spinning technology .Lynn White says spinning wheel was absent in ancient India and it came only with Ghorian conquerors to India.(13th to 14th century).In a copy of Harivansa printed in 15590-95)this is shown but with no crankhandle.In jehangir period miniatures the crank handle is not there.In Bichitr picture of Jahangir times a spinning wheel with a half-handle and a hole for small peg-handle is seen.In Aurangazeb time miniature a piece of wood mounted on axle at an angle is seen.The possibility is that the crankhandle came with Mughals (as an improvement)but the spinning wheel existed several centuries before the Persian and Ghorian conquerors in India.By 18th century the crankhandle was popular and further improvements did not happen.
5.Power transmission was incorporated in spinning wheel by wrapping connections .It embodies one of the earliest use of Flywheel principle and differential speed of rotation.The belt-drive was essential for main movement of the tool.The beltdrive confirms employment of this power transmission method in production technology .The spinning wheel increased productivity by this technology .
6.The spun yarn is transferred to spool.This tool is illustrated in the Miftah.The glossary explains it as wooden instrument on which cotton yarn and silk is wound ,and it is called Paretti in Hindi.
From cagespool or winding stick ,yarn was taken off the skein .Miftah describes the Kalawa(skein)thus:A yarn is put on yarn,that is coiled(pechand)and that is called ate in Hindi.This is the written earliest description of skeining.
Yarn was collected as coils from cage-spool for dyeing prior to weaving.This also is depicted in Mughal miniatures.The collected yarn is transferred from cagespool on to the wooden pegs driven into the ground in a circular manner.The coiled yarn is then collected and dyed.
7.Collection of yarn on weft-spool to be used in shuttle is a very important process.The yarn is wound on a reed from the skein.The reed was pushed over the spindle head and yarn was wound from skein on to reed which served as weft-spool.Miftah has an illustration of this.The ancillary use of spinning wheel is here.Spinning wheel is used for preparing weft-spool in a shuttle ,and raises the productivity .It was called Zaghuna in ancient times and during the time of Miftah it was popularly called a Mashora,it records.Weftspool or mashora is yarn (risman)which women arrange(sazand)in the shape of an egg or spindle.He also says that yarn is staraightened (rast kunand)and put together(baham karda).Bahar-i-Ajam gives a detailed accurate definition and says Mashora is that on which weavers would yarn,pass(guzarand)it into the shuttle(maku).
8.Warp-winding is the next important step.In its simplest form it is shown in Mughal miniatures and in Ziaudin Nakshabi’s Tuti Naama(1580-85)The weaver of silk garments is shown at a loom.The man transfers collected yarn from warp winding stock on to a number of warp pegs driven into ground in circular manner.Two pegs are seen placed near each other to achieve a warp-cros.The warp winder first attach the end of thread to right and left of the cross pegs alternately ,until warp has the requisite number of threads.Warps were sized to reduce friction and avoid damage to threads during weaving.Miftah describes size(ahar)thus:It was bat or pat (size)that was put on the cobweb(tansta)of yarn.The yarning and stretching is illustrated by him.Yarn put horizontally and supported at both ends by stout sticks driven to ground.A man depicted applying size on yarn with a brush (mala).The brush(mala)is a weavers brush or sima ,by which he puts size upon yarn of the cloth.This is called Kunchi in Hindi.(shown in Mughal miniatures)
9.Process of weaving consists of interlacing at right angles the two series of threads ,the warp and the weft.The instrument is the Loom.
Horizontal throwshuttles type loom for simple or tabby weave is very ancient ,the pai of treadles wherewith the sets of warp threads are lifted or depressed to allow for shuttle to pass through was added by an indigenous unknown weaver later.
Lauh-pay(footboard )a wooden strip which weaver keeps under his feet while weaving a cloth is used all over India.The pitloom(kuzhithari)is depicted in Mughal miniatures of 1580-85(Tutinama).The pair of treadles are placed in a pit in ground.The weaver operates sitting on edge of pit.Kabir is depicted with such a loom.In our primary school ,we were taught to weave a small piece of cloth with such a Kuzhithari or pitloom (that was in 1953-54 and such devises have disappeared from schools now.The best way to teach students Indian history is to have such ancient methods and explain the physics,chemistry,mathematics and brain work behind each of these.But unfortunately school curriculums are negligent of such things )The hands are freed to manipulate the shuttle and beater-comb ,while the feet can work the opening and closing of the shed which radically increase the speed and efficiency of operations and the speed and quality of production.
In miniatures the warp is horizontal .In Tutinama the warp is missing.Instead a continuous flow of cross warps which a man is busy arranging is shown.
Warp beam is tightened by tying it to a thick wooden peg.Warp tying string is shown near the breast beam.The weaver loosenes it to bring unfinished warp threads near him.Rod heddle(to which odd threads were lashed to lift half the threads to create the shed)shed rod(drawn close to weaver when heddle rod was let down from suspension to form counter shed for passage of next weft)are shown in miniatures.
10.Fancy or complex weaves.More manipulation since various colours are inserted in weft.From the first century at least Indian weavers have developed the Patola fabric.Motichandra speaks of Vichitrapatolaka(variegated coloured patola)in lalithavisthara of AD 1st century.It had been a rare gift item for Deogir to Aludin Khilji showing that it had been an indigenous technology and not from Persia.It is a special fabric from Patan of Gujrat and is a simple weave.(ref no 70 of ch 9 textile tools in Ajanta and Mughal paintings by Ishrat Alam notes that the pronounciation is Pattinee and not Patan.Thisis interesting since the Patinam or Taapatan of Arikkamedu in south India is a known trade center in prechristain and sangham period known to west and the Chinese for its export and economical prosperity).The warp and weft are pre-dyed in sections to proceed designs .Both sides have same pattern as against complex weaves with threads each entirely of one colour where two sides differ from the other.
For complex weave the technique of tabby weave and its variation patola weave was not sufficient.Thsi was achieved with a draw-loom.This multiply number of sheds controlled by cords pulled by a person assisting the weaver.Figured silks,cotton and fabrics were woven in India .From 11th century onwards South Indian weavers had been using this type of loom.Achuthari was the term for this.Achu means a design-print and thari is a loom.In Iran it was known from 14th century (Isami 1350)speaks of Chinese naqshbands(drawlooms)came to Iltumish’ Delhi .Tughlaq employed 500 manufacturers of golden tissues who could weave golden brocade for him.Ain-i-Akbari says Ghias –Naqshband was an excellent weaver.Till 19th century the ancient drawloom survived in India as evidenced from the Murshidabad (Bengal)loom.This had a draw harness which operated on figure warp only.It consisted of a large number of vertical draw-strings .Each string connected to a horizontal gut string in cross harness.With lifting of one drawstring ,cross harness gut string is lifted with its mails attached to warp threads were raised ,the resulting pattern could be repeated.(This was the same pattern taught to European enthusiasts by Indians so that they could develop a harmonium on its pattern with vibratory principles of the yazh).The draw-boy sits on an elevated platform manipulating the drawstrings (not in a pit).
12th century work Maanasollasa mentions Yanthraka with reference to dyeing in South India.The material coloured by a tool is mentioned by the text.Motichandra refers to term Chimpaka for a lady printer of calico (Chimpaka means calico)in 14th century and 15th century.And in 16th century Jaisi calls it Chapa,Maasir-i-Rahmi (1616(extols persons for designs(Tarhi /corrupted for south Indian Thari)for Chint(chintz)made at Sironj and this is definitely the designs from printing blocks.Sironj was a notable place for manufacture of chintz which was much in demand by Persian and European world.Direct colour impression was made on cloth with such designs.Chit was India’s speciality and its primacy in cloth manufacture and printing was undisputed and it had a very long history in Indian economy and trade relations.Tahir Wahid a 17th century poet said:My lifeless body gets life from the chitmakers by being used as printer’s blocks.”.Praising chintmakers of Khalif he says:One cannot pass him casually.For in his printer’s block(qalib)is the soul of a fairy.This shows the word meaning of qualib as well.Bahar –i-Ajam considers chappa as a Hindi word for printing block and adopted as such to Persian recently (in medieval times).The chaap and chint were Indian words adopted the world over establishing dominance of India in cloth printing and only in 1667 there had been a decline in calico printing and painting for home and for foreign markets including Persia ,as reported by Tavernier.That was because they had learnt the technique and started to produce it themselves.
Frenchman George Roque(1678)refers to wooden blocks and writes that the printer distinguished outlines by the lines and hollow of the first block.After it another block is used of same size and pattern.But in place of raised outlines of first block ,it had a hollow structure.Its voids went directly on imprint of first.The remainder of second block was without engravings to facilitate filling the ground with desired colour.When the ground was dry blocks with details of the design were applied in between black outlines of first block.After these impressions were dry,another block with rays (radiating lines)was used ,which gave shading to the flower by little lines.These were ordinarily of the colour of Indigo.
This also gives us an idea why indigo trade was very prominent in India.During the first millennia of Christian era the cotton industry was transferred to Cambodia and the existence of many of the instruments there proves the Indo-Cambodian cultural relationship and co-operation during that period.The principle of parallel worms did not spread to Europe until 19thcentury (Needham 1V .2.pp122)In Kangra paintings of Bhagavatha purana PL V which delas with migration From Gokula to Vrindavana the cotton gin is prominently shown.J.Marshall (Taxila.An illustrated account of archeological excavations 11 Cambridge 1951.pp 544 )speaks of iron axle for spinning wheels .Isami speaks of resentment of officers of Sultan Razia against her thus:-
That woman alone is good ,who works all the time with the charka
For a seat of honour would deprive her of reason.
Let pamba(cotton)be the woman’s companion
Grief her winecup
And the twang of the spindle will serve her well for her minstrel.
The derogatory remarks against women administrators and intelligentia is here,yet the notion of the author about weaving and spinning and music as the fitting professions for woman and his reference to certain instruments is noteworthy.The word pampa is used here for cotton also is interesting(Since there is a river in that name in Kerala ,where women are not allowed ,quite contrary to what Isami here says.).In Andhra Pampa is pronounced as Hampa and Amba and the Vijayanagara capital hampi is named after it (synonym for mother Goddess and for Cotton alike).
Treadles were used in China in 2nd century AD and in Europe in 12th century .In Egypt they were unknown.(Lynn white pp117-118.History of mechanical inventions Boston 1959).Heddle rod looms were equally useful in weaving carpets and tapestry weaves ,irrespective of whether they were horizontal or vertical,except the solitary difference of knotting-in a row of piles in carpet weaving and this was done by women in Persia who were married to Sultans and nobles and were sent as gifts from India so that a race of mixed Indo-iranian people (sankaravarga ) originated.